A Forgotten Frontier of Magna Graecia

Ancient Apulia lay along the eastern Adriatic coast of the Italian peninsula, just north of the “heel” of Italy’s boot. The heel itself belonged to Calabria in antiquity, though modern geography treats it as part of Apulia.

To the east stood Samnium and Lucania. To the north lay Frentani.

Originally, Apulia belonged to the Apuli, a Samnite Oscan tribe living near Mount Garganus. Later, the region included the Daunii and the Messapian-speaking Peucetii.

By the end of the fourth century BCE, Apulia had become thoroughly Hellenized. Greek influence flowed from Tarentum in Calabria. However, unlike the wealthy coastal cities of Magna Graecia, Apulia remained something of a backwater. It developed colonies late. Rome only began to take serious notice in the late fourth century BCE.

Yet beneath this quiet reputation lies a remarkable numismatic story.

Wealth Without Fame

Apulia produced wine and oil across its fertile plains. Rome later relied on the region for cattle and horses. Large-scale sheep farming followed, and Apulian wool earned high praise.

During the Samnite and Punic Wars, Rome tightened its grip. By the third century BCE, Apulian cities incorporated Roman monetary features. Before long, they minted coins in unmistakably Roman styles.

Still, only a few cities struck silver. Most minted bronze alone. The most prosperous mints were:

• Arpi
• Kaelia
• Kanousion
• Rubi

Each tells a different story.

Arpi: Myth, Horses, and War

Ancient tradition credits Arpi’s founding to the Argive King Diomedes. Greek myth says Diomedes stole the white horses of King Rhesus. Appropriately, horses dominate Arpi’s coinage.

Early Silver Coinage

Arpi began minting in the late fourth century BCE on the Campanian standard of approximately 7.3 grams to the didrachm stater.

A stater from 270–250 BCE shows Demeter crowned with grain on the obverse. A free horse leaps on the reverse. The ethnic ARPANWN appears prominently.

Smaller denominations followed:

• Diobols: Athena with horse or Herakles [A diobol is an ancient Greek silver coin worth two Obols, equivalent to 1/3 of a drachma.These small, often sub-10mm coins were used for daily transactions, such as paying for small goods, and were produced by various city-states between the 6th and 3rd centuries BCE]
• Obols: Horse and fishhook; or boar’s head and horse’s head [An obol is an ancient Greek silver coin worth one-sixth of a drachma, typically weighing around 0.72 grams. Originating from iron spits (“obelos”), they were used in daily commerce and funerary rites, where one was placed in the mouth of the deceased to pay Charon to ferry souls to the underworld]

The fishhook forms a visual pun on the Greek word arpe.

Punic Influence

After Cannae, Arpi shifted to the Punic standard. The mint produced triobols (1.8 g), diobols (1.2 g), and obols (0.6 g).

A triobol dated 215–212 BCE shows helmeted Athena. Three conjoined grain ears appear on the reverse. The number of ears indicates denomination:

• One ear = obol
• Two ears = diobol
• Three ears = triobol

This system stands as one of Apulia’s most clever numismatic devices.

Bronze Coinage

Arpi also struck bronze beginning in the late fourth century BCE.

Types include:

• Apollo and lion
• Zeus and boar
• Charging bull and galloping horse

Notably, the boar reverse closely resembles the Aetolian quarter stater reverse. Roman magistrates later appeared on issues, such as POULLI on a mid-third-century bronze.

Arpi’s coinage reflects myth, agriculture, and military turbulence, all in silver and bronze.

Kaelia: A Border City with Greek Roots

Ancient geographers debated whether Kaelia belonged to Apulia or Campania. Its coinage confirms Apulian identity.

Little survives about its history. However, its coinage speaks clearly.

Silver Issues

Kaelia struck silver from the fourth to second century BCE.

The early diobol features Athena and Herakles wrestling the Nemean lion. Obols show a pig on the obverse and KAI within an olive wreath on the reverse.

By the mid-third century BCE, the mint adopted the Tarentine standard. Obols depict:

• Helmeted male head and amphora
• Bull’s head and kithara
• Bull’s head and kantharos

Silver production ended by the mid-third century.

Bronze During the Punic Wars

In the last quarter of the third century BCE, Kaelia issued bronze under the Roman sextantal standard of 54.8 grams to the as.

A sextans shows Athena in Corinthian helmet. Two pellets mark the denomination. The reverse depicts a trophy with KAILINWN.

An uncia shows a single pellet for value. The mint also struck semunciae at half the weight of the uncia. At least three varieties exist for each denomination.

Kaelia’s coinage demonstrates Roman influence during wartime mobilization.

Kanousion: From Rebellion to Roman Citizenship

Like Arpi, Kanousion claimed Diomedes as founder. In reality, Daunians likely settled the city before Hellenization in the fourth century BCE.

During the Samnite Wars, Kanousion sided against Rome. Rome devastated its territory. Thereafter, loyalty shifted.

After Cannae, Kanousion welcomed Roman survivors. The city provided clothing, food, and money. This act likely spared it harsher punishment.

During the Social War (91–87 BCE), the city rebelled again. Rome failed to capture it. In 89 BCE, Kanousion received full Roman citizenship.

Silver Coinage

In the early third century BCE, Kanousion minted obols on the Achaian standard of 7.8 grams to the tridrachm.

Types include:

• Amphora and kithara (legend K-A)
• Bare male head and mounted warrior (KANUSINWN)
• Hemiobols depict Helios and crescents, or chelys (a tortoiseshell lyre) within a wreath.

Silver production ceased around 250 BCE.

Bronze and Roman Minting

Subsequently, Kanousion struck bronze denominations: triens, quadrans, sextans, and others weighing roughly 7 and 2 grams.

Later, near the end of the third century BCE, the city functioned as a Roman mint. It produced:

• As
• Semis
• Triens
• Quadrans
• Sextans
• Uncia
• Semuncia

Kanousion transformed from rebel ally to Roman monetary partner.

Rubi: Quiet but Complex

Rubi remains obscure in literary sources. However, its coins provide clarity.

The city gained full Roman citizenship at the end of the Social War in 90 BCE and became a municipium.

Silver Fractionals

In the late fourth and early third centuries BCE, Rubi struck diobols and obols on the Achaian standard.

Diobols show Athena and either:

• Grain ear
• Herakles and lion

The legend appears as PY, likely representing the Greek letter Rho.

Obols include chelys on the obverse and bucranium on the reverse. Six types exist.

Silver minting stopped by 275 BCE.

Bronze Series

Rubi issued four bronze denominations ranging from 7 to 2 grams.

Types include:

• Zeus and eagle on thunderbolt
• Herakles and club
• Athena and owl or Nike
• Zeus and Tyche with phiale and cornucopia

The PY monogram appears consistently.

Rubi’s modest coinage shows careful iconographic planning.

Why These Coins Matter

At first glance, Apulian coins seem unremarkable. They lack the artistic brilliance of Syracuse or Tarentum.

However, here is the overlooked truth.

These coins record a frontier in transition.

Arpi shifts standards after a Punic garrison. Kaelia adopts Roman weight systems during wartime. Kanousion transforms from Samnite ally to Roman mint. Rubi quietly stops silver production decades before full Roman integration.

Each change marks political pressure, and each weight shift reveals allegiance.

Apulia’s coinage captures the precise moment when Greek Italy yielded to Roman Italy.

That transformation shaped Western civilization.

And it happened, quietly, in silver obols and modest bronze sextantes.

Collecting Ancient Apulian Coins Today

Silver examples remain difficult to locate in the marketplace. Bronze pieces appear more frequently.

Despite relative scarcity, prices often remain modest. Therefore, the challenge lies in locating examples rather than affording them.

Collectors who pursue Apulian coinage enter a specialized and rewarding field.

References

• Acsearch.info Auction Database
• Classical Numismatic Group (CNG)
• Grant, Michael. A Guide to the Ancient World (1986).
• Head, Barclay V. Historia Numorum (1887).
• Hoover, Oliver. Handbook of Coins of Italy and Magna Graecia, Vol. 1 (2018).
• Hornblower & Spawforth. Oxford Classical Dictionary (1996).
• Sear, David. Greek Coins and Their Values, Vol. 2 (1979).
• Steve Benner writes for CoinWeek with a focus on ancient numismatics and the intersection of history and coinage.

The post Coinage of Ancient Apulia, Italy: Silver, Bronze, and a Forgotten Hellenized Frontier appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

Original By Tyler Rossi for CoinWeek ….. Reformatted and updated by CoinWeek

Understanding Patina on Ancient Coins: Types, Formation, and Collector Value

Unlike modern coins, ancient coins do not conform to the strict condition thresholds of the 70-point Sheldon Grading Scale. Instead, collectors evaluate ancient coins primarily on eye appeal, surface preservation, and historical integrity. One of the most important contributors to eye appeal is patina.

So, what exactly is patina, and why does it matter so much?

What Is Patina on Ancient Coins?

In technical terms, true patina refers to surface oxidation that begins forming on a metal coin almost immediately after striking. On modern copper coins, this same process produces the familiar Red, Red-Brown, and Brown designations.

However, among ancient coin collectors, the term “patina” has a broader meaning. In common usage, it describes any layer of oxidation or mineral deposition that forms over centuries while a coin remains buried. This process depends primarily on two variables:

• The chemical composition of the soil
• The metal alloy of the coin

Because burial environments vary widely, ancient patinas appear in many forms, textures, and colors.

The Two Primary Patina Categories

Most ancient bronze coin patinas fall into two broad color families:

• Green patinas
• Red patinas

Each forms through distinct chemical reactions involving copper and environmental elements.

Green Patina: The Most Common Surface Type

Green patina is the most frequently encountered surface on ancient bronze coins. It forms primarily from copper acetate (Cu(CH₃CO₂)₂), which develops when copper reacts with acetic acid present in air or soil.

Importantly, green patina can vary dramatically in tone. Shades range from nearly black to bright or pale green, depending on environmental exposure and alloy composition.

Desert Patina: A Subtype of Green Patina

One visually striking variation of green patina is known as desert patina. This surface results from a combined chemical and environmental process.

Desert patinas typically feature:

• A light sandy or tan surface layer
• A darker green or brown patina beneath

These patinas form most often in dry, dusty climates, where fine sand becomes chemically bonded to an already-patinated surface. When conservators partially remove the encrustation, the darker underlying patina creates a dramatic contrast that highlights design details.

Important Note on Authenticity

Desert patinas can be artificially fabricated. In some cases, original surfaces are stripped and sandy material is glued onto the coin. Depending on the adhesive, these forgeries may be removable with water or gentle brushing. As a result, collectors should examine desert patinas carefully.

Red Patina: Rare and Visually Polarizing

Red patina appears far less frequently than green patina. It forms when cuprous oxide (Cu₂O), also called copper(I) oxide, develops from reactions involving cupric oxide (CuO) in the coin or surrounding soil.

This patina can appear bright red or dark crimson. However, coins displaying only red patina are extremely rare. In nearly all cases, red patina forms on top of an existing brown copper surface.

In the example above, uneven red encrustations sit atop a thick reddish-brown base, creating a visually unstable appearance.

By contrast, some red-brown combinations appear more uniform and stable.

While eye appeal remains subjective, evenly distributed red-brown patinas are generally considered more attractive and chemically stable.

Brown Patina: Thin Oxidation or Mixed Surfaces

Brown patina forms in two primary ways:

• Through a thin copper oxide film created shortly after striking
• Through a natural blend of green and red patinas

Coins that developed a brown surface before burial often retain especially smooth textures.

Blue Patina vs. Bronze Disease

Blue patina is exceptionally rare, and often misunderstood.

In many cases, blue-green surface growth indicates bronze disease, not patina. Bronze disease occurs when internal chemical reactions produce acid within the coin. This process creates powdery blue-green eruptions and causes active metal loss.

Unlike patina, bronze disease is destructive and subtractive. If removed, it leaves behind pitting and surface damage.

Historically, researchers once believed bronze disease was biological in origin, hence the term “disease.” Modern research has shown it to be chemical. Treatment methods remain complex and fall outside the scope of this article.

True Blue Patina: Rare but Stable

Not all blue patina indicates bronze disease. Some copper oxides form stable blue or blue-green surfaces, similar to those seen on untreated bronze statues.

In other cases, blue-green patinas may appear waxy and highly durable.

River (Tiber) Patina and Anaerobic Preservation

River patina, often called Tiber Patina, forms in oxygen-deprived (anaerobic) environments, such as riverbeds or waterlogged clay soils.

Coins with this surface typically display:

• A subtle brass-like color
• Minimal brown oxidation
• Even, fine pitting across the surface

Because clay prevents oxygen exposure, oxidation may slow or even partially reverse. As a result, the coin may appear close to its original struck condition.

Cleaning vs. True River Patina

Not all smooth bronze coins possess river patina. Some have simply been harshly cleaned.

For example, this dupondius of Augustus and Agrippa (10–14 CE) had its patina stripped and sold for $100 in 2015.

A comparable coin with original patina sold for nearly $400 in 2013.

By contrast, authentic river patinas show no tooling or stripping.

Coins recovered from anaerobic sites, such as the boggy soils near Vindolanda in Britain, often exhibit these same surfaces.

Variations in River Patina Preservation

Not all river-patinated coins appear pristine. Many circulated heavily before deposition.

For example, this sestertius of Titus shows light corrosion but retains an authentic anaerobic surface. Due to its extreme rarity, it sold for £8,000 in 2016 (approximately $10,841 USD, inflation-adjusted).

Why Some Coins Survive, and Others Do Not

Patina is technically a form of corrosion. So why do some coins survive while others deteriorate completely?

Some coins do not survive at all. Highly acidic soil can reduce bronze coins to featureless discs.

Coins that endure typically benefit from:

• Low soluble salt content in surrounding soil
• Chemical equilibrium between corrosion layers and burial environment

When stable and attractive, patina can mask surface flaws and significantly enhance value.

Fake Patinas and Collector Caution

Because patina adds value, some individuals attempt to fake it using chemical treatments. While convincing at first glance, artificial patinas often lack the hardness and integration of genuine surfaces.

Most authentic patinas formed over centuries become extremely difficult to remove without damaging the coin. That said, some genuine patinas—especially rare blue-green types—remain soft.

For this reason, careful examination remains essential.

Final Thoughts

Patina tells a coin’s story. It records chemistry, environment, and time itself. Understanding patina helps collectors distinguish authenticity from alteration—and preservation from decay.

Sources

• Metal Detecting World – Patina Overview
• Powder Diffraction (Cambridge University Press) – Roman Coin Patina Analysis
• Caridi et al., 2014 – Investigation on Ancient Bronze Patina
• Sandu et al., 2006 – Authentication of Archaeological Bronze Coins

* * *

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The post Patina on Ancient Bronze Coins appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

Medusa is one of the most recognizable figures in Greek mythology. Even people with little interest in classical history know her name.

That familiarity comes primarily from popular culture. Films like Clash of the Titans (1981 and 2010), The Gorgon (1964), and Medusa: Beauty Is the Beast (2020) kept her story alive for modern audiences.

Many also recognize Medusa as a symbol of power and allure. Her image famously appears in modern fashion branding, while her ancient counterpart stared out from coins across the Mediterranean world.

Yet few realize how deeply Medusa permeated ancient coinage, or how complex her story truly was.

Medusa Before the Monster

Before she became a monster, Medusa was a mortal woman. According to a later myth, she served as a virgin priestess in the temple of Athena. She was especially admired for her hair, which ancient writers described as radiant and beautiful.

That beauty caught the attention of Poseidon (Neptune). He pursued her violently and assaulted her within Athena’s sacred temple. Medusa pleaded for protection, but none came.

Athena’s response defined Medusa’s fate.

Rather than punish Poseidon, the goddess transformed Medusa. Her hair became venomous snakes. Her gaze turned men to stone. Athena also granted her a strange immortality, despite Medusa’s mortal birth.

Some sources add further details. Medusa may have had scales. She may have worn small wings on her head. These elements appear inconsistently, but they surface often enough to matter.

Exiled and feared, Medusa retreated to a cave along the coast of Asia Minor, possibly near ancient Cisthene in Aeolis. There she lived alone, surrounded by the stone remains of those who tried to kill her.

Ovid and the Tragic Medusa

The best-known version of Medusa’s story comes from Ovid, writing during the reign of Augustus. Ovid often treated the gods with skepticism, yet his account drew from older traditions.

Importantly, Ovid emphasized Medusa’s humanity.

That interpretation mattered. It reframed Medusa as a tragic figure rather than a simple monster. This shift would later influence Greek artists, and, significantly, Greek coin engravers.

From Minoan Roots to Classical Beauty

Medusa’s origins reach back to Minoan times. She was one of three Gorgon sisters: Stheno, Euryale, and Medusa. Only Medusa was mortal. All three were daughters of the sea deities Phorcys and Keto.

Early artistic depictions were terrifying. Vase painters and sculptors showed Medusa with bulging eyes, tusks, and a grotesque face. She embodied chaos and danger.

That image changed during the Classical period.

By the fifth century BC, writers like Pindar and artists like Polygnotus described Medusa as beautiful. Greek art softened her features. Coins soon followed.

Perseus and the Severed Head

Medusa’s death remained consistent across traditions.

King Polydectes sent Perseus to kill her. The gods intervened. They armed Perseus with winged sandals, a curved sword (harpa), a reflective shield, and a cloak of invisibility.

Using the shield’s reflection, Perseus avoided her deadly gaze. He struck swiftly and beheaded her.

From Medusa’s severed neck sprang Pegasus and Chrysaor, the result of her earlier union with Poseidon. Perseus later used Medusa’s head as a weapon, turning enemies, including Atlas, to stone.

Eventually, he gave the head to Athena. She mounted it on her shield, the aegis.

That moment sealed Medusa’s transformation, from victim to eternal symbol.

Medusa on Greek Coins

Medusa appeared on Greek coinage with astonishing frequency. Cities across Asia Minor, mainland Greece, Sicily, Thrace, and the Black Sea world struck coins bearing her image.

Her popularity was no accident.

She symbolized protection, power, and divine authority. On coins, she served both religious and political purposes.

Two Primary Coin Types

Greek coins show Medusa in two dominant forms:

• Medusa as a Woman
  In these depictions, she appears human. Sometimes she looks severe. More often, she appears calm or even beautiful. Wings occasionally appear on her forehead, a lingering archaic feature.
• The Gorgoneion
  This was Medusa as an apotropaic symbol. The Gorgoneion stared outward, meant to ward off evil. These faces are frontal, intense, and often grotesque.

A consistent feature helps identify them: the protruding tongue. Nearly every confirmed Gorgoneion shows it.

During the Classical period, the humanized Medusa became more common. The monstrous version did not disappear, but it lost dominance.

Medusa as a Secondary Motif

Some coins use Medusa as an attribute rather than a central image. Small Gorgoneia appear on reverses, shields, or field symbols.

Even when reduced in size, her presence carried weight.

Perseus with Medusa’s Head

Several Greek cities also depicted Perseus holding Medusa’s severed head. These scenes are dramatic and unapologetically violent.

They reinforce Medusa’s role as a source of power, even in death.

The Aegis and Divine Protection

The aegis deserves special attention.

Zeus wore a goatskin adorned with Medusa’s head. Athena carried a shield bearing the same image. The aegis inspired terror and guaranteed victory.

Greek coinage adopted this symbol eagerly. Medusa appears on shields, breastplates, and armor, not just faces.

Her role shifted again. She no longer threatened the viewer. Instead, she protected the bearer.

Medusa in Roman Coinage

The Romans used Medusa far less frequently than the Greeks.

Most examples date to the late Roman Republic. Civil war may explain this timing. Medusa’s image offered protection during chaos.

Republican denarii show her both facing forward and in profile. Some versions retain her wings. Others soften her features dramatically.

Imperial Rome rarely used Medusa. When she does appear, it is usually as an ornament on armor.

One notable exception stands out.

Septimius Severus and Caracalla issued aurei featuring Medusa prominently. These coins likely referenced a famous gilt-bronze aegis donated to Athens centuries earlier.

A similar type later appeared under Victorinus. Even so, such issues remain rare.

Provincial mints, however, continued to use Medusa more freely.

Final Thoughts on Medusa’s Legacy

Medusa’s image evolved more than almost any mythological figure in antiquity.

She began as a monster. She became a victim. Eventually, she emerged as a symbol of divine power and protection.

Ancient coins capture that transformation perfectly.

Greek engravers preferred her human face. Roman minters used her sparingly but deliberately. Across centuries, Medusa never lost her ability to command attention.

One final note underscores her enduring appeal:
a Medusa aureus sold for $350,000 in 2020.

For a “maligned maiden,” that is a remarkable legacy.

Reference

• Acsearch.info: an auction database
• Classical Numismatic Group (CNG)
• Head, Barclay V. Historia Numorum: A Manual of Greek Numismatics. Oxford (1887).
• Sear, David. Greek Coins and Their Values, Vol 2: Asia. B.A. Seaby Ltd. (1979).

The post Coins of Medusa: The Maligned Maiden appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

Original article By Nathan Elkins for American Numismatic Society (ANS) 
posted April 27, 2022 and re-edited and formated by CoinWeek.

Why Roman Coin Identification Still Challenges Even Experts

Roman coin identification forms the backbone of ancient numismatics. Yet, despite its importance, it remains one of the most complex skills to master. While books, databases, and classroom instruction help, none can replace experience. Numismatists learn by handling coins, comparing types, and spending countless hours refining their judgment.

As a result, Roman coin identification is not a skill one learns and finishes. Instead, it develops gradually over time. Even experienced scholars continue sharpening their abilities as new material, tools, and methods emerge.

The High Stakes of Coin Identification in the Field

For field numismatists, the difficulty increases significantly. Coins recovered from excavations rarely resemble the crisp, well-preserved examples found in auction catalogs. More often, they appear worn, corroded, or incomplete.

Moreover, archaeological sites frequently produce coins from many cultures and periods. During excavations in Israel, for example, assemblages have included Roman, Seleucid, Ptolemaic, Nabatean, Hasmonean, Herodian, Byzantine, Crusader, Islamic, and modern issues. Consequently, correct attribution becomes essential. In many cases, a single coin can establish the date of a layer and fundamentally alter the historical interpretation of a site.

How Roman Coins Were Identified Before Digital Tools

Not long ago, identifying Roman coins in the field required careful planning, and heavy luggage. Numismatists packed multiple volumes of Roman Imperial Coinage (RIC) and hoped they had chosen the right ones for the material likely to appear.

When on-site identification proved impossible, scholars photographed coins and completed the work later. Eventually, PDF scans of reference books and early online databases such as CoinArchives helped streamline the process. Even then, experience mattered most. Over time, numismatists learned to recognize recurring types instantly, especially among late Roman issues.

When Reverse Types Do the Heavy Lifting

In many cases, reverse imagery provides the most reliable clue. Late Roman coins often survive with little legible legend, yet their reverse types remain recognizable.

For example, coins showing two soldiers flanking a single standard date to the final years of Constantine I’s reign and the early rule of his sons. If Constantine appears on the obverse, the issue dates to 335–337 CE. If one of his sons appears as Augustus, the coin belongs to 337–340 CE. Thus, even fragmentary visual evidence can narrow a coin’s date range with surprising accuracy.

When Late Roman Bronzes Test the Limits of Perception

Nevertheless, identifying worn late Roman bronzes can feel subjective. Scholars often tilt coins under light, searching for faint outlines that may, or may not, be there.

For decades, Guido Brück’s Die Spätrömische Kupferprägung has helped address this problem. By pairing simplified line drawings with rulers, mints, and legends, the book guides users toward plausible attributions. Even today, its approach remains instructive.

OCRE and the Digital Transformation of Roman Coin Identification

The launch of Online Coins of the Roman Empire (OCRE) marked a major turning point. Developed by the American Numismatic Society in collaboration with the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World at New York University, OCRE placed a vast Roman coin corpus online.

Instead of flipping through printed volumes, users can now search legends, browse keywords, and compare images in seconds. As a result, Roman coin identification has become faster, more accessible, and far more efficient.

The Most Underrated Tool in OCRE’s Arsenal

Despite its strengths, one OCRE feature remains surprisingly underused: the coin identification tool.

Recently, the tool demonstrated its power in an unexpected way. While browsing an online coin forum, a staff member at the ANS, without formal training in ancient numismatics, successfully identified a Roman coin using OCRE alone. This example underscores how intuitive and effective the tool has become.

How the OCRE Identification Tool Works

The identification tool allows users to enter visible portions of obverse and reverse legends, without spaces. Importantly, it also supports wildcard searches using an asterisk (*), making it ideal for incomplete or uncertain legends.

For instance:

• impconstantinvs* finds legends beginning with IMP CONSTANTINVS
• *constantinvs* locates legends containing CONSTANTINVS anywhere
• *const* returns results for Constantine I, Constantine II, and Constantius II

As a result, even minimal surviving text can yield useful matches.

Refining Results by Metal and Portrait

In addition, users can filter results by metal, which quickly eliminates many possibilities. The tool also allows searches by emperor and offers portrait galleries. This feature proves especially valuable for collectors and students still learning to recognize imperial likenesses.

Together, these options reduce guesswork and dramatically improve attribution accuracy.

What Comes Next for Roman Coin Identification Online

The ANS is actively exploring ways to expand the identification tool’s capabilities. Future enhancements may include keyword searches for reverse types, allowing users to enter terms such as Victory, branch, or patera.

If implemented, these features would further assist users working with heavily worn coins—especially those recovered in the field.

Why This Matters for Collectors and Researchers Today

Roman coin identification continues to evolve. Digital tools like OCRE do not replace experience, but they amplify it. By combining traditional numismatic knowledge with powerful online resources, collectors and scholars can work faster, more accurately, and with greater confidence.

For CoinWeek readers, whether seasoned researchers or advanced collectors, OCRE represents one of the most important developments in Roman numismatics of the last generation.

Have Ideas to Improve OCRE? The ANS Wants to Hear from You

As OCRE grows, user feedback remains essential. Collectors, dealers, and scholars alike can help shape the future of Roman coin identification by sharing suggestions and insights.

In the meantime, OCRE stands as a reminder that even in a discipline rooted in ancient objects, innovation continues to drive discovery.

The post Roman Coin Identification Made Easier: How OCRE Is Changing the Way Collectors and Scholars Attribute Ancient Coins appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

CoinWeek Ancient Coin Series by Mike Markowitz …..

As with politicians, nothing is more important to gods than image … Perhaps this is the secret of the longevity of the God of Israel, that He never allowed an image of Himself^[1].

THE OLD TESTAMENT’S strict prohibition of idolatry inhibited the development of religious art in the early centuries of Christianity^[2]. Although Theodosius I (ruled 379-95 CE) made Christianity the official state religion of the empire^[3], familiar pagan imagery persisted for another century on the coinage. Money truly is conservative! Nike, the winged goddess of Victory, a common reverse type, was gradually transformed into an angel holding a cross^[4].

Wedding Commemoratives

On July 28, 450, Emperor Theodosius II fell from his horse and died without a successor. His powerful sister Pulcheria, who had taken a lifelong vow of chastity, quickly arranged a political marriage with Marcian, a military commander, to ensure an orderly succession to the throne.

It was customary to issue special ceremonial coins for imperial weddings, bearing the reverse Latin inscription FELICITER NUBTIIS (“Happily Married”). Distributed as party favors at the wedding banquet, they were often mounted in jewelry and treasured as keepsakes for generations. One damaged example of the gold marriage solidus for Marcian and Pulcheria survives, in a museum in Glasgow, Scotland.

Neither the bride nor the groom had a living father to preside over the ceremony, so the palace official who commissioned the design of the coin had the engraver place the standing figure of Christ between Marcian and Pulcheria.

Forty-one years later, the same situation arose when Emperor Zeno died without an heir. His widow Ariadne quickly married a court official, Anastasius, aged about 60. Only two examples of the wedding solidus are known (one at Dumbarton Oaks, one in a private collection).

Again, the haloed figure of Christ appears between the bride and groom, joining their hands in matrimony. Such tiny figures on rare ceremonial coins, intended for use only within the imperial court, were hardly a major influence on the iconography of the coinage. But they established a precedent for depicting Christ as a man, at a time when He was commonly represented as the Lamb, or simply symbolized by the Cross.

Justinian II, Part 1

Justinian II came to the throne in 685 at the age of 16. Heraclius, who ruled 610-41, was his great-great grandfather. Justinian’s early coinage was conventional, bearing his portrait (often beautifully executed by a talented master engraver) on the obverse and a cross on steps reverse. But in 692 he introduced an extraordinary innovation: placing a bearded, long-haired portrait of Christ on the obverse of the coin, with the Latin inscription “Jesus Christ, King of Those Who Reign” (IHS CRISTOS REX REGNANTIUM).

This image, often described as Christ Pantocrator (“ruler of all things”) ultimately derives from the gold and ivory statue of Zeus in the temple at Olympia, created by the sculptor Phidias circa 435 BCE^[5]. The reverse depicts the standing figure of the emperor with the inscription “Justinian Servant of Christ”.

This remarkable change in the coinage may have been a gesture of defiance toward the Muslims, who recognized Jesus as a prophet, but rejected His divinity. Examples of this famous coin, even if poorly struck and off-center, are in high demand. High-quality specimens typically bring $5,000 or more at auction^[6]. On Harlan Berk’s list of the 100 Greatest Ancient Coins, this type is #77 (Berk, 114). Fractional denominations were struck with the same design (the semissis worth half a solidus and the tremissis worth a third) but are quite scarce.

Justinian II, Part 2

Overthrown in a palace coup in 695, Justinian’s nose was mutilated and he was exiled to a remote outpost in the Crimea. Mutilation was considered more humane than execution since it supposedly rendered the victim permanently ineligible for the throne.

In exile, Justinian has his nose repaired by an itinerant surgeon^[7], formed an alliance with the pagan Bulgars, married a princess of the pagan Khazars, and plotted his return to power, which he accomplished in 705. Justinian’s second reign was a reign of terror, during which he took ferocious vengeance on his opponents.

There was another dramatic change in the coinage, for reasons unknown.

A new portrait of Christ, with short curly hair and a short beard appeared on the obverse^[8]. This “Syrian” image was said to derive from a portrait painted from life by the apostle Luke. The reverse bears Justinian’s face (with a perfectly normal-looking nose) and a new Latin inscription: “Justinian, Many Years”. Shortly afterward, Justinian added the image of his young son Tiberius to the reverse; between them they hold a cross^[9]. Both types of Justinian’s second reign solidus are scarce, but being in less demand they are somewhat more affordable. On Berk’s list of the 100 greatest ancient coins, this is #93 (Berk, 115).

Overthrown by a military coup on November 4, 711, Justinian and his son were executed. The coinage returned to the conventional cross-on-steps reverse for over a century, during the period of the “Iconoclast Controversy”.

Theodora to Theodora

When the last Iconoclast ruler, Theophilus, died (January 20, 842) his widow Theodora restored the image of Christ to the coinage. Coins issued in her name as regent for her son Michael III are extremely rare, but they bear the image of Christ Pantocrator, closely copied from the solidus of Justinian II’s first reign but inscribed in Greek (the use of Latin had gradually died out at Constantinople)^[10]. After Theodora was deposed, the coins of Michael III continued the same obverse design^[11].

Basil I “the Macedonian” came to the throne in 867 by murdering his friend and benefactor Michael III (politics was a rough game in Constantinople). On his common gold coinage, Basil placed an image of Christ enthroned, with the familiar “Rex Regnantium” inscription^[12]. This may copy a mosaic above the throne in the imperial palace, restored after it was plastered over by the Iconoclasts. Composed of simple geometric forms, the crude image is remarkably awkward, even for this era of sharply declining artistic standards. For the next two centuries, variations on this image would alternate with the haloed head of Christ as the standard obverse on Byzantine coinage.

Theodora, the last survivor of the Macedonian dynasty founded by Basil I, ruled briefly in her own name from January 1055 to her death in August 1056^[13]. The beautifully executed coinage of this reign introduced a full length standing figure of Christ. This image may be the icon called Christ Chalkites, which stood above the main entrance of the imperial palace. On the reverse, the empress stands beside the Virgin Mary^[14].

A very different image of a beardless youthful Christ, holding a scroll and raising His right hand in benediction, was introduced on the gold hyperpyron of Manuel Komnenos, who ruled 1143-1180. The inscription is an abbreviated Greek invocation to the Virgin for help^[15]. Some observers have noticed a striking similarity between this icon, known as Christ Emmanuel, and depictions of the Buddha.

Constantinople Regained… and Lost

In 1261, Michael VIII Palaeologos recaptured Constantinople from the “Latins”, who had held it since 1204. On the reverse of his gold hyperpyron, there is a complex scene of the emperor kneeling before the standing figure of Christ, while his namesake, the Archangel Michael, hovers in the background. Most surviving examples of this type are poorly struck, from badly worn dies and with deep edge cracks. An exceptional example brought $4,750 in a recent auction^[16].

The last coinage in the name of a Roman emperor was struck during the final siege of Constantinople in 1453. The obverse image of Christ is reduced to a few tentative strokes and dots, scarcely recognizable as a face.

The cataloguer writes:

…[T]the present coin is illustrative of how far the empire had fallen. Its fabric is crude, struck on recycled silver from church altar vessels in order to pay mercenaries, and the quality of the artistry no better than the worst barbaric imitative issues of the migration period, yet the historical importance of these extremely rare coins cannot be overstated^[17].

Beginning in the 13th century, the rising Italian commercial powers of Florence and Venice introduced a gold coinage that would become the standard of world trade for centuries^[18]. The Venetian silver grosso bore an image of Christ enthroned, closely copied from Byzantine iconography. The gold ducato of Venice, which retained the same design down to the end of the Venetian republic in 1797, bore the standing figure of Christ (remarkably similar to that on Theodora’s coin of 1056) in an almond-shaped frame (mandorla) filled with stars^[19].

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Citations

References

• Bellinger, Alfred R. “The Coins and Byzantine Imperial Policy”, Speculum 31 (1956)
• Berk, Harlan J. 100 Greatest Ancient Coins. Whitman Publishing. Atlanta (2008)
• Breckinridge, James. The Numismatic Iconography of Justinian II. American Numismatic Society. New York (1959)
• Grierson, Philip. Byzantine Coins. Berkeley (1982)
• –. Catalog of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection: Vol. 3, Part 1. Washington (1973)
• Kantorowicz, E.H. “On the Golden Marriage Belt and the Marriage Rings of the Dumbarton Oaks Collection”, Dumbarton Oaks Papers 14 (1960)
• Mathews, Thomas. The Clash of Gods: A Reinterpretation of Early Christian Art. Princeton (1993)
• Perala, Andrew. “A Byzantine Mystery: The Image of Christ”, Worldwide Coins 3 (2009)
• Remensnyder, John P., Mary Bigelow and Robert M. Goldwyn. “Justinian II and Carmagnola: A Byzantine Rhinoplasty?”, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 63 (1979)
• Sear, David. Byzantine Coins and Their Values. London (1987)

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THE DREAM OF flight has always held a powerful grip on the human imagination. Pegasus, the flying horse of Greek mythology, symbolizes that dream, and this winged white stallion appears on many ancient coins. A recent search for the term “Pegasus” in the CoinArchivesPro database (which documents over 2 million auction records over the past 2 decades) produced 25,155 hits! There are hundreds of different types, extending over eight centuries. In what follows, I describe a selection that I hope will be most interesting to CoinWeek readers.

Earliest Pegasus

The first reference to Pegasus in literature is Hesiod’s Theogony, dated to the late eighth or early seventh century BCE. The magical flying horse and his brother Chrysaor, a flying boar, were born from the blood of the monster Medusa when the hero Perseus cut off her head:

Pegasus flew away, leaving the earth that feeds the sheep, and joined the gods; now he lives in the halls of Zeus and carries the thunder and lightning bolts for the almighty lord of wisdom (Brown, 61)^[1].

Pegasus appears at the very dawn of ancient coinage on an electrum trite (one-third stater, 4.75 grams) from an uncertain mint in Ionia on the eastern shore of the Aegean Sea. A cataloguer explains:

Pegasos is here shown with the characteristic curved wings of his depictions in the archaic period. In mainland Greece, the transition from curved to straight wings on earthenware appears to have started around the middle of the sixth century, and on coinage from the start of the fourth century, though curved wing depictions persisted in deliberately archaized forms until much later^[2].

Archaic Corinth

Strategically located at the narrow isthmus joining the Peloponessus to mainland Greece, Corinth^[3] grew prosperous on trade. The earliest coinage of Corinth adopted Pegasus as the city’s emblem, and this continued for centuries. The coins usually bear the obsolete letter qoppa (Ϙ), which was the initial of Corinth’s Greek name. The silver stater or didrachm of Corinth weighed exactly half as much as the Athenian tetradrachm and the two coinages circulated together. The coins were nicknamed πωλοι (poloi, meaning “colts”). A magnificent example dated to c. 550-500 BCE brought over $85,000 in a recent European auction^[4]. The prolific Corinthians planted many colonies throughout the Mediterranean, and most of these cities put Pegasus on their coins as a token of connection to the mother city.

Cyzicus

The city of Cyzicus^[5] (or Kyzikos) issued coins in electrum (an alloy of gold and silver) long after most other Greeks had switched to pure silver and pure gold. The city’s emblem was a tuna fish, which sometimes falls off the edge of poorly centered coins. The designs changed every year, so there is a tremendous variety of types. Pegasus adorns a crudely struck archaic Cyzicene stater^[6], c. 450-330 BCE.

Kelenderis

The town of Kelenderis (today Aydıncık, Türkiye) had one of the best ports on the southern coast of Anatolia. On an extensive silver coinage beginning in the fifth century BCE, the city emblem was a billy goat turning his head to look backward. The front half (“protome”) of Pegasus often decorates the obverse of small denominations.

At first, I was baffled by the frequent appearance of only half the flying horse until I saw the star chart for the constellation of Pegasus^[7], which represents only the front of the creature. In Greek mythology, Zeus placed Pegasus among the stars to reward his courage.

Tarsus

In mythology, the hero Bellerophon rode Pegasus to defeat the monstrous Chimera (Khimaira). Flying horse and rider appear on both sides of a remarkable silver stater of Tarsus dated to c. 425-400 BCE. Of this coin, of which only three examples are known^[8], a cataloguer wrote:

The myths tell us that as Bellerophon’s fame grew, so did his hubris. He felt that because of his victory over the Chimera, and because he thought he was a god he deserved to fly to Mount Olympus, the realm of the gods. This presumption angered Zeus and he sent a gadfly to sting Bellerophon’s mount, Pegasos, causing Pegasos to accidentally throw Bellerophon to the ground. The story as it pertains to Tarsos is that it was on the site of the future city that Bellerophon landed, hurting his foot, thus leading the city to be named tar-sos (the sole of the foot)^[9].

Leukas

After Corinth itself, Leukas was the most prolific mint for Pegasos staters (Sear 1978, 215).

Leukas (now Lefkada, an island on the western coast of Greece) was a colony of Corinth. A silver stater “of lovely late Classical style,”^[10] dated to c. 375-350 BCE, bears an elegant Pegasus flying to the left, above the Greek letter lambda (Λ) to indicate the city’s name.

Lampsakos

Located on the Hellespont (the narrow strait separating Asia Minor from Europe), Lampsakos^[11] grew to be a major city with a substantial gold coinage. Lampsakos adopted the forepart of Pegasus as its emblem. A magnificent gold stater^[12] dated to c. 350 BCE realized over $262,000 in a recent European auction — possibly a record price for any Pegasus coin.

Carthage

One of the largest and heaviest ancient coins depicting Pegasus is a silver dekadrachm (or “five-shekel piece”) of 38 grams (more than the 31-gram troy ounce!) issued by the Carthaginians in Sicily, probably to pay mercenaries during the First Punic War. The cryptic Punic inscription is b’rst (“in the land”). This muscular Pegasus may be copied from a stater of Agathocles, King of Syracuse (317-289 BCE).

An example described as “rare and possibly the finest specimen in private hands of this desirable and prestigious issue” brought over $157,000 in a 2019 European auction^[13].

Syracuse

Founded as a colony of Corinth circa 734 BCE, Syracuse became the most important Greek city of Sicily thanks to its fertile hinterland, magnificent natural harbor, and reliable spring of fresh water. The turbulent political history of Syracuse saw alternating periods of monarchy, tyranny, and democracy. A Corinthian aristocrat, Timoleon^[14] (c. 411-337 BCE), restored limited democratic rule at Syracuse. Silver staters of this period (the “Third Democracy”) follow the Corinthian weight standard (~8.6 grams) and design, with the city name spelled out around the helmeted head of Athena on the reverse^[15].

Alabanda

Alabanda was a prosperous place, with a population reputed to be one of the most dissolute in the whole of Asia Minor (Sear 1979, 435).

A town in the province of Caria, Alabanda issued handsome silver tridrachms (a three-drachma piece of 11-12 grams) in the second century BCE. These bear the head of Apollo on the obverse and Pegasus within a laurel wreath on the reverse^[16].

Mithradates

Like Hannibal a hundred years before he tried valiantly to stem the relentless advance of Roman power. But after three wars he was eventually defeated by Pompey the Great and later committed suicide, in his sixty-ninth year (Sear 1979, 680).

Mithradates VI “the Great”, King of Pontus (120 – 63 BCE), was one of Rome’s most determined enemies. He carved out an extensive empire in Asia Minor, issuing handsome gold staters and silver tetradrachms bearing his portrait, with a variety of animals on the reverse. The coin image of Pegasus appears to be kneeling as if to drink^[17]. One of the magical powers ascribed to Pegasus is that springs of fresh water would emerge from the ground where his hoof struck.

Aes Grave

Like so many things Rome borrowed from the Greeks, Pegasus makes an appearance very early in the history of Roman coinage. Lacking a domestic supply of silver, in the third century BCE Rome experimented with enormous cast coins known to numismatists as aes grave (Latin for “heavy bronze”). Pegasus appears on both sides of a semis coin, weighing one-half of the 12-ounce Roman pound, dated to c. 270 BCE^[18].

Quintus Titius Mutto

Like many Roman mint officials^[19], Quintus Titius Mutto is known to history only from the fairly common denarius issued in 90 BCE that bears his name. The obverse bears the head of Mutinus Titinus^[20], an obscure Roman sex god, possibly a sly pun on the official’s name. The reverse shows Pegasus leaping into flight with gracefully upswept wings^[21].

Lucius Cossutius

Lucius Cossutius was a mint official of the Roman Republic in 74 BCE. His denarius bears an elegant head of Medusa on the obverse and Bellerophon riding Pegasus and hurling a spear on the reverse. An outstanding example of this coin brought nearly $15,000 in a recent London auction^[22].

Augustus

A delicate Pegasus with rather spindly legs stands on a ground line on the reverse of a Rome mint denarius of the emperor Augustus dated 19/18 BCE^[23]. The responsible mint official, Publius Petronius Turpilianus, came from a distinguished Senatorial family^[24], that produced several provincial governors and consuls in later years.

Domitian

Born in 51 CE, Domitian was the younger son of the emperor Vespasian. He was given the honorary title of “Caesar” in 69 and became emperor on the death of his elder brother Titus in 81. One of the most common Roman imperial coins depicting Pegasus is this issue of Domitian as Caesar (junior co-emperor) dated to 76/77 CE. An exceptional example realized nearly $1,000 in a 2019 London auction^[25].

Since horses are not designed for flight, ancient artists were unsure about how to attach eagle wings to Pegasus. Sometimes the wings spring from the chest (the muscles that power birds’ wings are anchored to the “keel” or breast bone), but other times they are rather impractically tacked onto the animal’s back, as on this coin.

Gallienus

The last appearance of Pegasus on an ancient Roman coin may be this rare gold aureus^[26] of the emperor Gallienus (reigned 253-268 CE) dated to his seventh consulship in 264/265. At least four different Roman legions adopted Pegasus as their emblems, and one of these, Legion II Adiutrix, was a favorite of Gallienus.

Cellini

As an animal companion of the Muses, Pegasus became a popular symbol for poets and poetry^[27]. When the Italian Renaissance poet Cardinal Pietro Bembo (1470-1547) commissioned famous goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini to create his portrait medallion^[28], a magnificent classic Pegasus featured prominently on the reverse. Renaissance celebrities handed out these medallions to friends as keepsakes. When the Italian province of Tuscany (Toscana) created its modern flag^[29], Cellini’s Pegasus was chosen for the design.

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Pegasus on Ancient Coins: Notes

[1] The brilliant classical scholar Norman O. Brown, who translated Hesiod, was one of my teachers at the University of Rochester, NY.

[2] Roma Numismatics Auction 8, September 28, 2014, Lot 518. Realized £9,000 (about $14,620 USD; estimate £7,500).

[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Corinth

[4] NAC Auction 116, October 1, 2019, Lot 143. Realized CHF 85,000 (about $85,222 USD; estimate CHF 60,000).

[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyzicus

[6] CNG Triton XXIV January 19, 2021, Lot 637. Realized $4,250 USD (estimate $3,000).

[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegasus_(constellation)

[8] Nomos Auction 18, May 5, 2019, Lot 203. Realized CHF 20,000 (about $19,623 USD; estimate CHF 6,000).

[9] Roma Numismatics Auction XVI, September 26, 2018, Lot 331. Realized £4,200 (about $5,528 USD; estimate £5,000).

[10] Leu Web Auction 20, July 16, 2022, Lot 694. Realized CHF 5,100 (about $5,210 USD; estimate CHF 150).

[11] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lampsacus

[12] Maison Palombo Auction 20, January 22, 2022, Lot 16. Realized CHF 240,000 (about $262,467 USD; estimate CHF 100,000).

[13] NAC Auction 114, May 6, 2019, Lot 109. Realized CHF 160,000 (about $157,217 USD).

[14] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timoleon

[15] CNG Auction 120, May 11, 2022, Lot 74. Realized $6,000 USD (estimate $2,000).

[16] Nomos Auction 21, November 21, 2020, Lot 200. Realized CHF 2,800 (about $3,069 USD; estimate CHF 750).

[17] Roma Numismatics Auction XXIII, March 24, 2002, Lot 254. Realized £3,000 (about $3,955 USD; estimate £3,000).

[18] CNG Auction 112, September 11, 2019, Lot 468. Realized $2,100 USD (estimate $1,000).

[19] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triumvir_monetalis

[20] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutunus_Tutunus

[21] CNG E-Auction 507, January 5, 2022, Lot 412. Realized $900 USD (estimate $300).

[22] Roma Numismatics Auction XXII, October 7, 2021 Lot 601. Realized £11,000 (about $14,984 USD; estimate: £3,000).

[23] CNG Auction 115, September 16, 2020, Lot 613. Realized $1,100 USD (estimate $750).

[24] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronia_gens

[25] Roma Numismatics Auction XVIII, September 29, 2019, Lot 1127. Realized £800 (about $987 USD; estimate £1,000).

[26] Heritage Sale 3904, August 19, 2021, Lot 33098. Realized $13,500 USD (estimate $8,000-$10,000).

[27] The magazine Poetry uses an icon of Pegasus as its logo.

[28] Astarte Auction XIX, May 6, 2006. Realized CHF 650 (about $531 USD; estimate CHF 500).

[29] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Tuscany

References

Brown, Norman O. (translator). Hesiod: Theogony. Indianapolis (1953)

Cammann, Jean B. Numismatic Mythology. New York (1936)

Kraay, Colin. Archaic and Classical Greek Coins. New York (1976 reprint)

Sear, David. Greek Coins and Their Values. Vol 1: Europe. London (1978)

–. Greek Coins and Their Values. Vol 2: Asia & Africa. London (1979)

–. Roman Coins and Their Values, Vol 1: The Republic and the Twelve Caesars. London (2000)

Seltman, Charles. Greek Coins. London (1955)

Stevenson, Seth W. A Dictionary of Roman Coins. London (1964 reprint of 1889 edition)

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The post When Horses Flew: Pegasus on Ancient Coins appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

Dr. Steve Benner for CoinWeek …..

Introduction

Triumphal arches are a uniquely Roman architectural concept. There were no precedents for this type of arch in the Greek world or the Far East. The Romans acquired the idea of the arch (“fornix” for oven) from the Etruscans but perfected it with the use of concrete and formwork. It may have originated from the Etruscan practice of the sub-jugum (“under the yoke”), which was a rectangular arch of spears that defeated soldiers were forced to walk under. Wherever the idea came from, the Romans embraced it. They used it in their aqueducts, buildings, gates, etc. To them, it represented Rome’s might and power.

The triumphal arch came into use in the 3rd century BCE. The earliest examples were probably built in conjunction with triumphal processions by victorious generals (hence the name) and may have been temporary (wooden?). They could also be created by placing statues on top of aqueducts (see Figures 2b and 3d). Around 196 BCE, freestanding arches were erected in the Forum Boarium and on the spina of the Circus Maximus by the proconsul of Spain, L. Stertinius. Three more are known to have been built: one for Scipio Africanus in 190 BCE, one for the conquest of Corinth in 146 BCE, and the Fornix Fabius by Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus in 121 BCE. It is not recorded what these were made of, and there are no remains to confirm their construction. When Augustus became Emperor in 27 BCE, the building of triumphal arches increased dramatically.

An arch could be one of several types: single, double, triple, or quadruple (quadrifrons). The last type had an arch facing in each direction and was usually placed at road intersections. They were typically 50 to 80 meters high and adorned with columns, statues, reliefs, and a quadriga on top. A description of the honoree or builder was included in the inscription on the entablature at the top (Figure 1). The reliefs consisted of battle scenes, prisoners, winged victories, gods, etc. Niches along the sides held statues of gods or people. Arches could be built not only for military victories but also for civic accomplishments. The Senate authorized the building of numerous arches in Augustus’ honor, both in Rome and in the provinces, and most emperors built them if they managed to stay alive long enough to do so. There were at least 36 arches built in Rome during its long history, but only three main ones are still extant: the Arch of Titus, the Arch of Septimius Severus (Figure 1), and the Arch of Constantine. The latter was built using parts from other emperors’ structures (Marcus Aurelius’, Trajan’s, and Domitian’s). Since most of the triumphal arches in Rome are now gone, coins have been crucial for understanding what these lost structures looked like.

As mentioned above, triumphal arches had their origins in the 3rd century BCE but didn’t catch on as a popular type of monument until the Principate. Figure 2a shows a denarius minted by Manius Aemilius Lepidus in 114-113 BCE with Roma on the obverse and a triumphal arch on the reverse. The legend on the obverse is ROMA, and the reverse shows Lepidus’ name with LEP within the arches. What the arch refers to is not known; it could have been one erected by Lepidus for some civic or military accomplishment, or it could have been an existing arch. There seem to be many such denarii in the sources. The second denarius (see Figure 2b) was issued by Marcius Philippus around 56 BCE and features King Ancus Marcius (the fourth king of Rome) on the obverse and an equestrian statue on an aqueduct on the reverse. Within the arches is the lettering A Q V A MAR (“water Marcius”). The aqueduct was supervised and partially funded by the Praefectus Quintus Marcius in 144-140 BCE (?). This is an example of creating a triumphal arch from an existing aqueduct, as mentioned above. I assume that this coin was made by the moneyer Philippus to honor his ancestors.

Augustus

The building of triumphal arches went into high gear when Augustus became Emperor (“first citizen”). During his 40-year reign, the Senate and principalities authorized the building of these arches not only in Rome but throughout the Empire. One of the first ones built by Augustus (Octavian at the time) was in 30-29 BCE (Figure 3a) to celebrate his victory at Actium over Mark Antony and Cleopatra. It has a single arch with IMP CAESAR on the architrave. However, this monument was not popular because, even though Octavian claimed it was for the victory over Cleopatra, the Roman public knew it was for the defeat of a fellow Roman, Mark Antony. So, in 20 BCE, the Senate authorized Octavian to build an arch to commemorate the return of the standards taken by Parthia (losing an aquila or signum was a disgrace to a unit). The Actium arch was reworked to add two new arches with statues on top: one holding a standard and the other holding an aquila and bow (some versions have an archer on the left and a slinger on the right) (see Figure 3b). The inscription was changed to CIVIB ET SIGN MILITA PART RECVPE (“citizens and military ensigns recovered from the Parthians”). This arch spanned the road between the Temple of Castor and Pollux and the Temple of Caesar. This particular coin type was minted in both gold and silver. Figure 3c shows another version of the Parthian arch on a cistophorus minted by Pergamum, which has only one arch and IMP V TR POT IV in the entablature and SPR / SIGNIS / RECPTIS under the arch. Figure 3d shows a denarius that commemorates Augustus’ extensive work to repair and improve the network of roads used to control the Roman Empire. The reverse has the legend QVOD VIAE MVN SVNT (“because the roads have been repaired”). It features the arch atop what appears to be an aqueduct, as mentioned above. Augustus later decreed that triumphs and triumphal honors were to be confined to members of the Imperial family.

Drusus

Figure 4 shows an aureus with the triumphal arch of Nero Claudius Drusus on its reverse. Drusus was the brother of Claudius and father of Germanicus. The arch commemorated Drusus’ victories over the Germans. An equestrian statue of Drusus is on top of the arch, and a military trophy and bound captive are to the left and right of the horse. DE GERM is on the architrave. The arch was built soon after his death in 9 BCE and was located on the Appian Way. Later, Claudius minted many sestertii with his portrait on the obverse and Drusus’ arch on the reverse (see Figure 5).

Claudius

There seems to be no mention of triumphal arches for either Tiberius or Caligula, though the former ruled long enough to have one built. As mentioned, Claudius minted sestertii with the Drusus arch on the reverse (see Figure 5a); some incorrectly believe this arch is for Claudius because his portrait is on the obverse (he didn’t fight in Germany). The Senate did authorize the building of two arches for Claudius to celebrate his conquest of Britain: one in Rome and one in Gaul, both of which are no longer extant. The one in Rome was built by converting one of the arches of the Aqua Virgo aqueduct, where it crossed the Via Flaminia, into a triumphal arch (Figure 5b). [Note that this photo is not to scale; the aureus is much smaller than the sestertius.] The structure has one arch with an equestrian statue of Claudius on top and trophies to the left and right. The legend DE BRITANN is inscribed on the architrave. Fragments of the dedication have survived. It reads in part: “… because he received into surrender eleven kings of the Britons conquered without loss and he first brought the barbarian peoples across the Ocean under the authority of the Roman people.”

Nero

The Senate authorized the building of a triumphal arch for Nero on the Capitoline Hill in front of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in 63 CE. He built this to commemorate his “victory” over Parthia, which was not a military victory but a political one. We have a good idea of what the arch looked like because Nero minted many attractive sestertii with the arch on the reverse (Figure 6a). It was a single arch with a statue of Mars in a side niche and was elaborately decorated. Nero in a quadriga was on top. Some say the horses ended up over St. Mark’s in Venice, though others dispute this. The arch was dismantled soon after Nero’s reign ended, and the artwork was used elsewhere.

Galba

No triumphal arches were built for Galba, probably because he didn’t have any victories worthy of an arch, and his rule was only nine months long. But he did put some examples on his coins. Figure 6b shows an AE as with prisoners walking under a triumphal arch, followed by a Roman soldier (sub-jugum). It is probably the Arc de Barà near Tarragona, Spain. The legend on the reverse is QVA DRAGENSVMAE REMISSAE (“the fortieth is remitted”) and refers to the remission of a tax, which is strange for a triumphal arch. He also minted a denarius with an elaborate arch and the legend AUGUSTUS on the reverse, and another AE as with a triumphal arch similar to the Arc de Barà.

Domitian

Domitian was the son of Vespasian and brother of Titus and succeeded his brother upon his death in 81 CE. His father and brother had many triumphal arches erected, especially to their victory over Judea (Titus’ arch is still extant), but they did not put them on their coins. Domitian was different and did put them on his coins. Figure 7a shows a sestertius with Domitian’s quadrifrons on the reverse. The arch was built in 85 CE and commemorated both Domitian’s victory over the Germans and his fifteenth anniversary as emperor. It has panels with elaborate sculpted friezes and two bigae of elephants surmounting the arch. The arch’s location is believed to have been at the intersection of the Via Flaminia and Pallacinae. Suetonius stated that the emperor erected so many arches in Rome that a Greek punster wrote on one of them, “enough.”

Trajan

By the time he became emperor in 98 CE, Trajan had a number of military victories against the Germans. One of his earliest arches is shown in Figure 7b, which was built in Rome sometime before 103 CE (Trajan’s fifth anniversary). It was probably celebrating Trajan’s victories in Germany since it seems too early for his victories in the Dacian Wars (101-106 CE) and Parthian War (115-117 CE) to have been included. The arch was very elaborate, the architect having thrown everything he could think of into the design. The roof’s entablature was inscribed with IOM (“Iove Optimus Maximus”). As a result of his victories in Dacia and Parthia, he had several triumphal arches constructed, not only in Rome but also in the provinces. In Benevento, Italy, there is a Trajan arch, built between 114 and 117 CE, that is in excellent condition and has depictions of these later victories. Trajan also minted several denarii and aurei coins with a reverse showing the Arcus Traiani (entrance to the Forum Traiani), which looks very much like a large triumphal arch.

Septimius Severus

Septimius Severus was a very successful general who managed to defeat all his rivals during the civil war following the death of Pertinax in 193 CE. After becoming emperor, Septimius conducted a successful campaign against the Parthians and then against the tribes in Britain. Figure 8 shows a denarius with Septimius’ Parthian triumphal arch on the reverse (the same as in Figure 1). Parthian prisoners and scenes from battles are depicted in reliefs along the sides. Septimius and his son, Caracalla, minted denarii and AE asses with this arch on their reverse. This arch still exists in the Roman Forum today.

There are many triumphal arches in Italy and the provinces that are in excellent shape. Some of the best-preserved arches are in Jordan, Libya, Turkey, and France. Also, the idea of triumphal arches did not die out with the Roman Empire, and modern triumphal arches include the Brandenburg Gate in Germany and the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel in France. The coins mentioned in this article tend to be a little pricey, as monumental coins are always pricey, especially the gold ones.

Reference

Acsearch.info: an auction database.

Classical Numismatic Group (CNG): an auction database.

Wildwinds: an auction database.

Boardman, John, Jasper Griffin, and Oswyn Murray. The Oxford History of the
Classical World, Oxford University Press, New York & London (1993).

Hornblower, Simon, Spawforth, Antony (ed.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary.
Oxford (1996).

Madden, F., C.R. Smith, and S.W. Stevenson. A Dictionary of Roman Coins. London
(1889).

Ortega, Ivan Fumado. “Triumphal Arches,” National Geographic (Jan/Feb 2025).

Sutherland, CHV, and RAG Carson. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Spink and Son,
London (various years).

Tameanko, Marvin. Monumental Coins, Krause Publications, St. Iola, WI (1999).

The post Triumphal Arches on Roman Imperial Coins appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

The ancient Greeks and Romans lived in a rugged, mountainous world. Mountains were not only the homes of their gods and nature spirits but often the sources of life-sustaining rivers. In some cases, they were volcanoes that spewed death and destruction. Some towns were even built on mountaintops. Given this, it’s surprising that mountains so rarely appear on ancient coins.

For instance, no ancient coin depicts holy Mount Olympus, despite archaeologists finding coins dated to circa 400 BCE at a shrine near its summit. Neither Sicily’s still-active Mount Etna nor Mount Vesuvius (the volcano that destroyed Pompeii in 79 CE) appears on any Greek or Roman coin. However, a few mountains do appear on coins, usually to express local pride in a sacred site.

Mount Argaeus

Looming above the ancient city of Caesarea in central Anatolia (known as Mazaca in ancient Greek and today as Kayseri, Türkiye) is Mount Argaeus (Erciyes Dağı in Turkish). This extinct volcano peaks at 3,917 meters (12,851 ft). In antiquity, the peak was always snow-capped. The ancient geographer Strabo (circa 64 BCE – 24 CE) wrote that from the summit, it was possible on a clear day to see both the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean to the south.

Under the kings of Cappadocia (who ruled from 331 BCE to 17 CE), Caesarea was called “Eusebeia under Mount Argaios.” Archelaos, the last king (ruled 36 BCE – 17 CE), struck rare bronze coins depicting the sacred mountain. A bronze coin dated to circa 9 BCE bears the head of Heracles on the obverse and the mountain, represented as a pile of rocks with an eagle perched on the summit, on the reverse.

After Cappadocia became a Roman province, the mountain continued to appear on local coinage. A silver drachm of Tiberius, dated to circa 17 – 32 CE, shows the mountain topped by the standing figure of a deity. A century later, on a silver didrachm of Hadrian (circa 128 – 138 CE), three stars appear above the mountain. Another century later, in 241 CE, a drachm of Gordian III renders the mountain in rich detail.

On the Coin Archives Pro database, which lists almost three decades of ancient coin auction records, a search for “Mount Argaeus” (conducted on June 16, 2025) produced 2,394 hits—all coins of Caesarea in Cappadocia.

Mount Gerizim

On an “apparently unique” silver tetradrachm of Neapolis struck under Caracalla (c. 215 – 217 CE) this view of the mountain is within a circular beaded border supported by an eagle with spread wings.

Above the town of Neapolis in Samaria (now Nablus in the West Bank of Palestine), Mount Gerizim rises to 881 meters (2,890 feet) above sea level. The mountain has been—and remains—sacred to the Samaritans, a sect that split from mainstream Judaism in antiquity. Their temple once stood at the summit and is depicted on a series of Roman provincial coins from Neapolis, minted during the second and third centuries CE. Under Roman rule, this temple was repurposed as a shrine to Jupiter. Like many ancient temples, it was demolished after the empire officially adopted Christianity. A large bronze coin dated to 161 CE, struck under Antoninus Pius (34 mm, 24.57 g), offers a detailed depiction of Mount Gerizim.

The cataloguer describes it as follows:

[B]elow in front, a colonnade with two arched entrances; the l. one leads to a stairway on l., flanked by a series of shrines or altars on the slope; the stairway leads to a temple seen in three quarter view; another roadway flanked by trees leads from the colonnade to an altar on top of the hill.

An “apparently unique” silver tetradrachm from Neapolis, struck under Caracalla (c. 215–217 CE), features this view of the mountain within a circular beaded border, supported by an eagle with spread wings.

Mount Tmolus

Under the Persian Achaemenid empire (550-330 BCE) Sardis was the capital of the province of Lydia and an important mint. A remarkable silver tetradrachm, was probably struck around 336-334 BCE to pay the mercenaries who would fight the invasion of Alexander the Great. The obverse depicts the Persian king holding a bow and spear. The reverse bears an irregular stippled pattern that has been interpreted as a topographic relief map of the terrain between Sardis and Ephesus a distance of about 50 miles, or 80 km including Mt. Tmolus. This would be the earliest preserved Greek map (Johnston, 1967.) In a 2015 US auction, an example of this type sold for $13,000.

The ancient city of Sardis lies on a spur of Mount Tmolus (modern Bozdağ), which has a highest point of 2,157 m (7,077 feet). In antiquity, the mountain’s slopes were famed for the excellent wine they produced. The Pactolus River (modern Sart Çayı), a source of electrum nuggets used to make the earliest coins, flows down from the mountain.

Under the Persian Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BCE), Sardis was the capital of the province of Lydia and an important mint. A remarkable silver tetradrachm was probably struck around 336-334 BCE to pay mercenaries who would fight Alexander the Great’s invasion. The obverse of this coin depicts the Persian king holding a bow and spear. The reverse bears an irregular stippled pattern, interpreted as a topographic relief map of the terrain between Sardis and Ephesus—a distance of about 50 miles (80 km), including Mt. Tmolus. This would make it the earliest preserved Greek map (Johnston, 1967). In a 2015 U.S. auction, an example of this type sold for $13,000.

On a rare bronze coin of Sardis under Roman emperor Caracalla (c. 211-217 CE) Tmolus is personified as a mountain god, reclining on pile of rocks, surrounded by grape vines.

Mount Eryx

The ancient town of Eryx (today Erice, Sicily) occupies a mountaintop overlooking the coastal city of Trapani. Founded by an indigenous people called the Elymians, it was later settled by Phoenicians and Carthaginians, who strongly fortified it with massive stone walls. In antiquity, it was an important shrine to the fertility goddess Astarte, identified by Greeks as Aphrodite and by Romans as Venus. Romans came to believe that the temple of Venus on Mount Eryx was founded by their legendary culture hero Aeneas, a refugee from the fall of Troy.

A Roman silver denarius, dated to 57 BCE and struck by the moneyer C. Considius Nonianus (who is otherwise unknown to history), depicts the temple on its walled mountain above a tablet inscribed “ERVC.” The coin’s obverse bears an elegant head of the goddess. An example, pedigreed to the famous Archer Huntington collection, brought over $4,500 in a 2024 Swiss auction.

Some numismatists argue that the temple depicted on the coin is actually the temple of Venus Erycina on Rome’s Quirinal Hill, but this seems to be a minority opinion.

Mount Ararat

Located in eastern Anatolia, Mount Ararat is a dormant volcano with twin snow-capped peaks. The larger peak rises to 5,137 m (16,854 ft). Although the mountain is located in Türkiye, it is visible on a clear day from the Armenian capital of Yerevan and remains an important national symbol for the Armenian people.

The only ancient coin that clearly depicts the mountain is a bronze dichalkon of Tigranes IV with his half-sister and queen, Erato, who reigned as Roman client rulers of Armenia from 8 BCE to 1 CE. Described as “unusually complete…with excellent details and undoubtedly among the finest known. Somewhat rough, otherwise, very fine,” an example from the mint of Artaxata brought $4,780 in a 2018 Swiss auction. In 2023, a slightly better example from the same auction house brought $11,798!

Acrocorinth

Located on the strategic Isthmus (a narrow strip of land connecting the Peloponnesian peninsula to the Greek mainland), Corinth was one of the wealthiest and most powerful Greek city-states. Sacked and plundered by the Romans in 146 BCE, the city later recovered under Roman rule. Rising to an elevation of 575 meters (1,886 feet), Acrocorinth, a rocky outcrop topped by a fortress, overlooks the city.

A large bronze coin of Corinth, issued under Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (ruled 161-180 CE), shows Acrocorinth crowned by a large temple of Aphrodite. Graded as “Good VF,” this rare type brought $4,600 in a 2006 U.S. sale.

Amasya

…Amaseia, my fatherland, a very strongly fortified city…
(Strabo, Geography, Book XII, Chapter 3)

Founded by the Hittites in the second millennium BCE, Amasya (or Amaseia) in north-central Anatolia was later settled by Phrygians, Cimmerians, Lydians, Greeks, Persians, and Armenians. It was the capital of the Greek kingdom of Pontus before it came under Roman rule in 70 BCE. The ancient Greek geographer Strabo (c. 64 BCE – 24 CE) was a native of Amasya.

On a bronze coin of Domitian dated to 92/93 CE we see the walled hilltop city surrounding a temple.

Athens

The Acropolis of Athens is a flat-topped limestone hill that reaches an elevation of just 150 meters (490 feet) above sea level. As a tourist who has climbed those stairs on a very hot day, I can vouch for its status as a mountain. Thanks to its enormous cultural prestige, Athens enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy under Roman rule, including the right to issue local bronze coinage. A very rare type, dated to c. 140 – 175 CE, shows the Acropolis viewed from the north and west, with the “Cave of Pan”—a natural grotto dedicated to the god of wilderness, nature, and shepherds—prominent in the center. Donaldson (1859) saw a well-preserved example and wrote: “By the aid of a powerful glass, I could perceive within the cave a crouching human figure, possibly intended to represent Pan himself.”

In a 2016 U.S. auction, an example described as “VF, rough green and brown patina” brought $2,750. A better example is in the collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Austria.

Thrace

Pautalia, an important ancient city of Thrace (today Kyustendil, Bulgaria), had a temple of the healing god Asclepius atop the fortified hill of Hisarlaka. This hill and its temples figure prominently on the city’s coinage.

A large civic bronze coin of Emperor Caracalla, dated to c. 198-201 CE, shows the hill topped by the temple. Only two examples of this type, a pentassarion, are known, but in a 2024 U.S. auction, one sold for just $300.

Collecting Mountains

Many of these coins are “Roman Provincial” bronzes that can be heavily worn and corroded, but because they are scarce and considered highly desirable “architectural types,” they often bring high prices at auction. The website Roman Provincial Coinage Online lists 45 types that depict mountains or mountain gods. Assembling a thematic collection of ancient coins that show mountains would be a challenge for a patient, determined, and resourceful collector.

* * *

References

Burnett, Andrew. The Roman Provinces, 300 BCE-300 CE: Using Coins as Sources. Cambridge (2024)

Butcher, Kevin. Roman Provincial Coins. London (1988)

Donaldson, T. L. Ancient Architecture on Greek and Roman Coins. Chicago (1965 reprint of 1859 edition)

Johnston, A. “The Earliest Preserved Greek Map. A New Ionian Coin Type.” Journal of Hellenic Studies 87 (1967)

Price, M.J. and Bluma Trell. Coins and Their Cities. London (1977)

Sear, David. Greek Imperial Coins and their Values: The Local Coinages of the Roman Empire. London (1982)

Sydenham, E. A. The Coinage of Caesarea in Cappadocia. London. (1933)

The post Mountains on Ancient Coins : Markowitz appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

When I began researching this article, I was aware of Sardinia’s rich 8,000-year history, but I hadn’t realized how limited the information on its coinage was. I’ve compiled all the available material to write this article, and I hope readers find it enlightening.

Sardinia, the second-largest island in the Mediterranean after Sicily, lies approximately 120 miles (200 km) off Italy’s west coast, north of Tunisia. It covers an area of 24,100 km² (9,305 sq mi). To its west is the Sea of Sardinia (part of the Mediterranean Sea), and to its east is the Tyrrhenian Sea. To the north, the island of Corsica is separated by the Strait of Bonifacio (Fretum Gallicum). Sardinia is a predominantly mountainous island with a generally high and rocky coastline featuring numerous small islands. Its highest peak, Punta La Marmora, stands at 6,017 feet in the island’s center. The mountain ranges are interspersed with wide alluvial valleys and flatlands in the southwest and northeast. The island is divided by a few major rivers, including the Tirso, Coghinas, and Flumendosa. Most of the arable land was historically used for growing cereals and fruit.

History

Sardinia was home to Neolithic civilizations as early as the 6th millennium BCE. During the Bronze Age, the local population, known as the Nuragic people, constructed thousands of stone structures called nuraghes. The island was rich in metals such as lead and zinc and maintained trading contacts with the Mycenaean civilization. In the 8th century BCE, the Phoenicians established cities and strongholds in the south and west of the island, typically near estuaries and harbors. Notable settlements included Tharros, Bithia, Sulci, Nora, and Caralis, though the Punic population remained small compared to the indigenous people.

The Greeks established a colony at Olbia in the north, though the Carthaginians eventually conquered it. In the 6th century BCE, the Carthaginians gained control of the western Mediterranean Sea and expanded their Punic settlements in Sardinia, overseeing them through plenipotentiaries known as suffetes. While they failed to conquer the entire island in 540 BCE, they succeeded by 510 BCE, establishing or expanding cities like Olbia and Neapolis. Tharros became the nominal capital, with cereals, fruits, and metals as the main exports.

The First Punic War between Rome and Carthage began in 264 BCE and lasted until 241 BCE. At its conclusion, Carthaginian mercenaries rebelled against Carthage in what became known as the Libyan or Mercenary War. This uprising presented Rome with an opportunity to seize Sardinia, which it did in 238 BCE, a move that violated the existing peace treaty with Carthage. The Romans incorporated the island’s existing infrastructure and combined it with Corsica, just to the north, to form the province of Corsica et Sardinia under the governance of a praetor. This new province, along with Sicily, supplied the majority of the grain required by Rome until the conquest of Egypt.

Revolts broke out in 235 and 233 BCE, both of which were suppressed by the Romans. After the Roman defeat at Cannae in 216 BCE, the island’s Punic nobles revolted against the Romans, controlling the island for a very short time. The Romans responded by sending 22,000 infantry and 1,200 cavalry under Titus Manlius Torquatus, who defeated the rebels at the Battle of Decimomannu in 215 BCE. The Romans defeated another rebel army in the south, reportedly killing 12,000.

There were other revolts in 181 BCE and between 177-176 BCE. In the latter instance, the Balares and Ilienses tribes revolted, but Tiberius Gracchus suppressed them, reportedly killing or enslaving 80,000 rebels. A commemorative plaque was placed in Rome, and Gracchus celebrated a triumph. The organized revolts by the coastal and highland Sardinians finally ended in 111 BCE. However, several tribes, known as civitates Barbariae, continued to resist Roman rule into Imperial times by retreating into the mountains. Enslaved Sardinians were notorious for being untrustworthy and for killing their masters. The frequent revolts demonstrated a deep-seated hatred for Rome among some segments of the Sardinian population.

Julius Caesar captured Sardinia from Pompey the Great in 49 BCE, securing its grain supply during the Civil War. Octavian later received the island as his share from the Second Triumvirate. Sextus Pompey, son of Pompey, terrorized the island from 40 to 38 BCE until the Pact of Misenum awarded him Sardinia in 39 BCE, which Pompey quickly violated. A fleet led by Marcus Agrippa eventually defeated Pompey and regained Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica.

Under Augustus, Sardinia and Corsica became a senatorial province ruled by a proconsul with the rank of praetor. In 6 CE, Corsica became a separate senatorial province, but Augustus appropriated Sardinia as a personal province until the Roman Emperor Nero returned it to the Senate in 67 CE. The Romans ruled the islands for 694 years. Sardinia became a place of exile for political prisoners, and, during the reign of Tiberius, Jews and Christians were arrested and put to work in the mines and quarries. Sardinia supplied the most sailors to the Roman navy and was a major supplier of metals such as lead, copper, and silver, ranking third in overall metal production.

The largest Roman city on the island was Caralis, with a population of around 30,000. Another significant city was Sulci, a wealthy settlement that had to pay Caesar 10 million sestertii for siding with Pompey during the Civil War. Other large and prosperous cities included Nora, Tharros, Olbia, Othoca, Neapolis, Bithia, and Cornus. Rome also founded colonies at Turris Libisonis and Forum Traiani.

Punic coins

Carthage began minting bronze coins on Sardinia in the late 4th century BCE, shortly before the First Punic War. The precise location of these mints remains unknown, though Caralis—the island’s largest city and an early Carthaginian conquest—is the most probable site. Tharros presents another strong possibility.

Figure 2 displays two bronze coins, chosen for their historical significance. The first (Figure 2a) is among the oldest coins minted in Sardinia, while the second (Figure 2b) was produced during the First Punic War (264–241 BCE).

Coin 2a features Tanit on the obverse and a horse’s head on the reverse, accompanied by a palm tree and a pellet. Tanit, Carthage’s principal goddess, was revered as a mother goddess, goddess of fertility, and sky goddess. The horse’s head could symbolize Carthage’s formidable cavalry and military might. Alternatively, it might allude to the myth of Dido’s companions discovering a horse’s head at the site Juno designated for Carthage’s founding. A third explanation is that “KAKKABH”—Punic for “horse’s head”—was an ancient name for Carthage. This design was the most prevalent type of Carthaginian coin.

Coin 2b also depicts Tanit on the obverse, with a standing horse on the reverse, a pellet, and the Punic letter “G.” This letter may represent a magistrate or minter. Both coins exhibit excellent artistry, particularly Coin 2a.

Figure 3 displays two coins minted by the Carthaginians after the First Punic War, during the mercenary revolt.

Coin 3a is a bimetallic stater, composed of copper and silver. Its obverse features a male head, while the reverse shows a standing bull with a grain ear behind it and the Punic letters “MG” to the right. The grain ear symbolizes Sardinia’s grain production, and the bull represents strength, fertility, and power. The “MG” likely refers to a magistrate. An identical coin found elsewhere was attributed to the Second Punic War occupation; therefore, this coin may either have been misattributed or its design revived during that later period (see Figure 4 discussion).

Coin 3b depicts Tanit on the obverse. The reverse features three grain ears and a pellet within a crescent above. The pellet on these coins may indicate the coin’s denomination, similar to its function on Roman Republic coins (see below).

During the Second Punic War (218–201 BCE), the Romans suffered a significant defeat at Cannae in 216 BCE. As a result, the Sardinians revolted and briefly regained control of the island, though this re-occupation lasted less than a year. Surprisingly, some Punic Sardinian coins are attributed to this specific period of the Second Punic War.

Figure 4 displays the most common coin from this period, and it may have been the only type struck, as another coin I found was suspect. It features Tanit on the obverse and a cow with a star above on the reverse. The star could symbolize eternity, glory, or function as a mintmark. These were the last Carthaginian coins minted in Sardinia.

Roman coins

Information on Sardinian coinage is scarce and often confusing. I have, therefore, synthesized a coherent account of Roman coinage on the island.

The Romans began minting coins on Sardinia after recapturing the island from the rebels, likely around 211 BCE, while the Second Punic War was still ongoing. The mints were probably the same ones previously used by the Carthaginians in Caralis and/or Tharros. Due to the war, the weight of the as was significantly reduced from 324 grams to 54 grams. The bronze as was initially valued at one-tenth of the newly introduced denarius (this ratio was later adjusted to one-sixteenth in the mid-2nd century BCE).

The following fractions of the as were produced on Sardinia: the triens (one-third) weighing 18g, the quadrans (one-quarter) at 13.5g, and the sextans (one-sixth) at 9g. These are illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4a displays a coin with the head of Minerva on the obverse, accompanied by four pellets above. The reverse features the prow of a ship with “ROMA” above and four pellets below. Minerva (Athena in Greek religion) was a prominent Roman goddess. The ship’s prow symbolizes Rome’s naval dominance after defeating Carthage. The four pellets indicate the coin’s value as one-third of an as.

Figure 4b features the head of Hercules on the obverse with three pellets, and the same reverse design but with only three pellets below. The number of pellets signifies that this coin is a quadrans, or one-quarter of an as.

Finally, Figure 4c shows the head of Mercury on the obverse with two pellets above, and the same reverse design with two pellets below, indicating it is a sextans, worth one-sixth of an as.

One unusual characteristic of Roman coins minted in Sardinia is their frequent underweight status, as shown in Figure 4. This is believed to be due to Roman minters utilizing a surplus of bronze planchets (blank coins) and/or Punic coins left over from the Carthaginian occupation. By overstriking these existing coins, the minters often produced coins lighter than the required denominations.

As far as I could determine, Rome ceased using Sardinia as an imperial mint early in the 2nd century BCE, as I found no later examples. However, I did locate some rather unappealing Roman colonial coins from the mid-1st century BCE that have been attributed to Sulcis, Caralis, and Uselis (an Augustan colony established in the island’s interior).

Comments

Carthaginian coins minted in Sardinia do not appear particularly rare or expensive, though their authenticity can sometimes be questionable (as seen in Figure 3a). However, Roman coins present challenges regarding their attribution to Sardinia, often ascribed to southern Italy or Sicily instead. While their lighter weight might suggest a Sardinian origin, even this indicator is disputed by some experts.

The post Caught Between Empires: Coins of Sardinia appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

By Mike Markowitz for CoinWeek …..
 

TO THE ANCIENT Greeks, he was Hephaistos^[1]. To the Romans, he was Vulcan. To the Etruscans, he was Sethlans. Many ancient cultures imagined a god of fire who presided over volcanoes and was a metalsmith who crafted magical armor and weapons. Of the 12 “Olympian” gods of the Greco-Roman pantheon, he appears on the fewest coins — a special challenge for collectors eager to assemble a “complete” type set of deities.

Like most things in Classical Numismatics, that list is… complicated. The Greek gods who dwelt on Mount Olympus^[2] were Zeus, Poseidon, Hera, Demeter, Aphrodite, Athena, Artemis, Apollo, Ares, Hephaestus, Hermes, and either Hestia or Dionysus. The list for the ancient Romans is Jupiter, Neptune, Juno, Ceres, Venus, Minerva, Diana, Apollo, Mars, Vulcan, Mercury, and Vesta or Bacchus. The eminent Belgian numismatist François de Callataÿ tabulated the frequency of Greek gods and heroes on coins in a major collection (de Callataÿ, 118). Zeus topped the list with 14,019 appearances, Athena with 7,503, and Apollo with 3,634. Poor Hephaestus appeared on 20.

In classical mythology, Hephaestus is a relatively minor figure. An early reference from the sixth or seventh century BCE is one of the anonymous “Homeric Hymns:”:

“Sing, clear-voiced Muses, of Hephaestus famed for inventions. With bright-eyed Athene he taught men glorious gifts throughout the world, — men who before used to dwell in caves in the mountains like wild beasts. But now that they have learned crafts through Hephaestus the famed worker, easily they live a peaceful life in their own houses the whole year round. Be gracious, Hephaestus, and grant me success and prosperity! (Hesiod, 20)”

Hephaestus was a son of Zeus and Hera, though one source says he was born miraculously from Hera alone. Unlike the other gods, who were perfect in beauty, he was ugly and therefore hurled from Olympus, breaking a leg when he fell onto the Aegean island of Lemnos. Rescued and nurtured by Thetis^[3] (the semi-divine mother of Achilles), the lame god eventually returned to Olympus to serve as craftsman and blacksmith.

Hephaestus on the Coins of Lipara

The seven volcanic Aeolian islands off the northern coast of Sicily were settled by Greek colonists as early as 600 BCE. Lipara, the largest island, issued bronze coins bearing what may be the earliest numismatic appearance of Hephaestus dated to c. 440 – 420 BCE.^[4] He wears the pilos (Latin: pileus), a conical leather cap worn by smiths to keep sparks from the forge from setting their hair on fire.

On a bronze coin of Lipara dated to c. 350 – 300 BCE, we see Hephaestus seated at his anvil, holding his hammer and an unfinished drinking vessel.^[5]

Mytistraton

The little town of Mytistraton (or Mytistratus; today Marianopoli) in the interior of Sicily was fortified by the Carthaginians in the First Punic War, and besieged by the Romans. Lying in the shadow of the great volcano Mount Etna, it featured the image of the volcanic god Hephaestus on its rare coinage, overstruck on bronze coins of Syracuse.^[6]

Aesernia

Samnites were a people of south-central Italy conquered by the Romans in a long series of wars from 343 to 290 BCE.^[7] Established as a Roman colony in 264 BCE, the Samnite town of Aesernia issued coins bearing the youthful head of Vulcan with one of his attributes, the tongs, used to handle hot metal.^[8]

Populonia

Ancient Etruscans (who called themselves “Rasna”) were an enigmatic people who inhabited the Italian region of Tuscany. They were gradually assimilated by the Romans, who adopted some of their customs. The Etruscan city of Populonia (“Fufluna” in Etruscan) was a thriving center of metal working, smelting copper mined in nearby hills, and iron ore from the island of Elba. Populonia issued more coins than any other Etruscan city. Dated to c. 215 BCE, a bronze triens honors Sethlans, the Etruscan version of Vulcan, with his characteristic cap, hammer, and tongs.^[9 The CoinArchives Pro database lists 42 examples of this type.

Malaka

One of the oldest cities in the world, Malaka^[10] (today Malaga, Spain) was founded by Phoenician traders around 770 BCE. Part of the Carthaginian Empire, it was captured by the Romans in 218 BCE. For almost two centuries under Roman rule, the city issued bronze small change for local use that continued to bear inscriptions in the Punic script, usually some variant of the city name MLK’. The coins bear the profile head of Vulcan with his tongs on the obverse and a star, a temple, or the facing head of Helios, the sun god, on the reverse.^[11]

Hephaistia

On the northern coast of the island of Lemnos and bearing the god’s name, the town of Hephaistia^[12] was a center of his cult. A rare small bronze dated to c. 100 CE, when the island was under Roman rule, bears the head of the god, with his characteristic conical cap. On the reverse, the city’s name is inscribed around a torch – an appropriate symbol for a god of fire.^[13]

L. Caesius

Lucius Caesius served as a mint official in 112/111 BCE. He issued silver denarii bearing a tiny head of Vulcan with his tongs on the reverse. Perhaps a tribute to the mint workers who produced the coins, this detail is visible only on the most well-preserved examples of the type.^[14]

L. Cotta

Lucius Aurelius Cotta came from an elite senatorial family, the gens Aurelia. As one of the annual magistrates who supervised the mint (triumviri monetales) in 105 BCE, he issued silver denarii bearing the head of Vulcan with his cap and tongs within a wreath.^[15] Vulcan must have had some special meaning for him. In 119 BCE, he was elected as consul, the highest office in the Roman Republic. His son, of the same name, became consul in 65 BCE, and his daughter, Aurelia Cotta, was the mother of Julius Caesar.

Severus

One of the best-known stories about Hephaestus is his creation of a shield and armor for the hero Achilles, recounted in book 18 of Homer’s Iliad. Achilles had lost his armor when Patroclus, his best friend forever, borrowed it and went off to fight and get killed by the Trojan hero Hector. Thetis, divine mother of Achilles, begged Hephaestus to craft new gear for her son. Roman provincial coins (sometimes called “Greek imperials”) issued by Greek-speaking cities of the Empire are often illustrated by mythological stories with a local connection. During the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, the city of Thyateira in Lydia issued a large bronze medallion^[16] with a reverse depicting Hephaestus putting finishing touches on a helmet with his hammer, while the goddess Athena looks on approvingly.^[17]

Valerian

Born to an elite senatorial family about 199 CE, Publius Licinius Valerianus rose to command an army that proclaimed him Emperor after Trebonianus Gallus was assassinated by his troops in 253. During his seven-year reign, he issued a variety of coins of remarkably poor workmanship honoring Roman gods. A silvered bronze antoninianus from the mint of Colonia Agrippinensis (today Köln, Germany) depicts Vulcan standing in a temple, holding his hammer and tongs.^[18] The Latin inscription DEO VOLCANO simply states “to the god Vulcan”. At just $45, this common type was the most affordable coin I found for this god.

Claudius II Gothicus

Born in 214 somewhere in the Balkans, Marcus Aurelius Claudius rose through the ranks of the Roman Army thanks to his physical strength. A legend says that he once knocked out a horse’s teeth with one punch. After the death of Emperor Gallienus in 268, Claudius was proclaimed Emperor by his troops. At the great Battle of Naissus in 268 or 269, he defeated a massive barbarian invasion, earning the title “Gothicus Maximus”.

Early in 270, he died in the devastating Plague of Cyprian^[19] (possibly smallpox). During the Crisis of the Third Century, the main Roman coin in circulation was the debased, crudely struck antoninianus^[18], a coin of leaded copper alloy with a thin surface coating of silver. For this short reign, some 73 different types are known, including one depicting Vulcan with his hammer and tongs, and the unusual inscription REGI ARTIS (“To the King of Arts”).^[20]

Huvishka

The Kushan Empire ruled much of central Asia and northern India for over three centuries (c. 30 – 375 CE). The Empire controlled the Silk Road and prospered from international trade. Huvishka (c. 151 – 190 CE, roughly contemporary with Marcus Aurelius) issued an extensive gold coinage. A wide variety of Hindu, Persian, and Greco-Roman divinities were honored on his coins. A gold dinar from a mint in Baktria depicts the standing figure of Athsho, a local god identified with Hephaestus. Flames surround his head and shoulders, and he grasps the hammer and tongs.^[21]

Hephaestus on the Coins of Germanic Tribes

Perhaps the last appearance of a metalsmith god on an ancient coin is a barbaric gold piece imitating a Roman aureus attributed to an “uncertain Germanic tribe” and dated to the late third or early fourth centuries.^[22] The coin is pierced for wear as an amulet and inscribed with meaningless strokes (a “pseudo-inscription”) by an engraver who was probably illiterate. A seated figure on the reverse raises a hammer. The cataloguer speculates that this might be Thor, the Germanic thunder god. He could also be Eitri^[23], the mythical smith who forged Mjölnir, Thor’s hammer, and Draupnir, Odin’s magical golden ring.

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Notes

[1] Usually rendered as the Latin spelling “Hephaestus”.

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Olympus

[3] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thetis

[4] Nomos Auction 30, November 6, 2023, Lot 1122. Realized CHF 1,800 (about $2,007 USD; estimate: CHF 1,000).

[5] Bertolami Auction 67, July 11, 2019, Lot 102. Realized £1,600 (about $2,009 USD; estimate £500).

[6] NAC Auction 123, May 9, 2021, Lot 134. Realized CHF 900 (about $991 USD; estimate CHF 250).

[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samnite_Wars

[8] CNG E-auction 502, October 20, 2021, Lot 7. Realized $700 USD (estimate $200).

[9] Gorny & Mosch, Auction 232, October 5, 2015. Realized €2,600 (about $2,915 USD; estimate €3,000).

[10] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Málaga

[11] Tauler & Fau Auction 145, June 25, 2024, Lot 28. Realized €1,300 (about $1,391 USD; estimate €800).

[12] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestia

[13] CNG Auction 115, September 16, 2020, Lot 424. Realized $1,600 USD (estimate $300).

[14] NAC Auction 143, May 7, 2024, Lot 113. Realized CHF 2,250 (about $2,487 USD; estimate CHF 1,000).

[15] Leu Web Auction 26, July 8, 2023, Lot 3514. Realized CHF 170 (about $191 USD; estimate CHF 50).

[16] The author is grateful to Tom Mullally, numismatist at CNG, for alerting him to this coin.

[17] CNG Auction 90, May 23, 2012, Lot 1011. Realized $4,500 USD (estimate $2,000).

[18] Roma E-sale 64, November 28, 2019, Lot 825. Realized £35 (about $45 USD; estimate £30).

[19] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_of_Cyprian

[20] Leu Web Auction 10, December 7, 2019, Lot 1466. Realized CHF 360 (about $364 USD; estimate CHF 50).

[21] CNG Auction 105, May 10, 2017, Lot 545. Realized $8,000 USD (estimate $4,000).

[22] Leu Auction 13, May 27, 2023, Lot 419. Realized CHF 2,200 (about $2,428 USD; estimate CHF 500).

[23] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eitri
 

References for God of Fire: Hephaestus and Vulcan on Ancient Coins

Adkins, Lesley and Roy Adkins. Dictionary of Roman Religion. New York (1996)

Bonfante, Giuliano, and Larissa Bonfante. The Etruscan Language: An Introduction (2nd Edition). Manchester (2002)

de Callataÿ, F. “Greek coin types in context: a short state of the art”, Pharos 22 (2016)

Hamilton, Edith. Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes. New York (1942)

Hesiod. Homeric Hymns, Epic Cycle, Homerica (H.G. Evelyn-White, translator). Cambridge, MA (1914)

Homer. Iliad (Richmond Lattimore, transl.). Chicago (1951)

Melville Jones, John. A Dictionary of Ancient Greek Coins. London (1986)

Sear, David. Roman Coins and Their Values, Volume III. London (2005)
 

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The post God of Fire: Hephaestus and Vulcan on Ancient Coins appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

Scheduled to close on May 1, the CSNS World and Ancient Coins Platinum Session and Signature Auction from Heritage Auctions highlights some of the finest coinage from the ancient world. They display prominent moments in history, including a gold aureus that marks Emperor Augustus’ struggle to secure an heir.

In 23 BCE, Augustus fell ill. After years of legitimizing his position as heir to the late Julius Caesar, Augustus had to turn his focus on his own future succession. Unfortunately, his favorite nephew, Marcellus, whom Augustus hoped to become his heir, would fatally contract the same illness that very year. Augustus had to act quickly. He would look to Marcus Agrippa, a childhood friend who had not only remained a Julius Caesar loyalist after the assassination but also helped solidify Augustus’ right to rule by defeating Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 BCE. He was a successful politician, acting as consul three times before Augustus rose to power. Agrippa was a strong choice for Augustus to secure an heir and would offer his signet ring as a contractual agreement in 23 BCE.

In 21 BCE, Agrippa would marry Augustus’ daughter Julia, who was formerly married to Marcellus. They would have five children – all of whom were viable options as Augustus’ heir. The two oldest boys, Gaius (20 BCE) and Lucius (19 BCE), quickly caught Augustus’ eye, featuring on the gold aureus in this auction. He would formally adopt them both and raise them to be his successors. The same year, Augustus hosted the fifth-ever Secular Games where he announced his Pax Romana due to his secured succession. While Gaius and Lucius were sent to provinces to train as consul-elects, Augustus’ stepson Tiberius (43 BCE) was creating problems.

Son of Livia, Tiberius’ mother left his father to marry Augustus in 38 BCE. After Caesar’s assassination, the elder Tiberius would offer loyalty to Mark Antony, and after Antony’s demise, would flee Rome with his family. A few years later he would be pardoned, only to have Augustus marry Livia while she was pregnant with their second child. Tiberius would be raised by Livia and Augustus by the time he was nine but showed little ambition despite later serving as praetor in 16 BCE and consul in 13 BCE.

His relationship with Augustus turned sour when, after the death of Agrippa, Tiberius was forced to divorce Agrippa’s daughter, Vipsania, and marry the widowed Julia. Tiberius’ political career would take a dive, going as far as being exiled to Rhodes in 6 BCE due to tensions with Gaius, while Tiberius saw it as a retirement away from his failing marriage and political responsibilities. By 2 BCE, Julia would herself be exiled for adultery, though scholars speculate if the reason was more politically motivated. Tiberius was free to divorce Julia and would return to his political duties.

In AD 1, Gaius was sent to the eastern front to help alleviate the Parthian conflict, while Lucius was sent the following year to aid the Spanish Campaign. However, Lucius would die on his way near Marseille. Two years later, Gaius would die in Lycia of his wounds from battle in Armenia. Augustus was devastated and marked this as the lowest period of his life. He turned to his last resort and adopted Tiberius as his heir, who had been successful in his military campaigns since his return from Rhodes. Tiberius would be granted imperium maius (“supreme command”) and tribunicia potestas (“tribunician power”) until Augustus died in August of AD 14 – Tiberius accepting the principate quickly after.

The aureus of Augustus in the May 1 auction, minted sometime between 2 BC and AD 4, marks the moment immediately before or after the deaths of Lucius and Gaius. It memorializes Augustus’ grandchildren, the dreams of his succession, and subsequently, the future of the Roman Empire.

View all the lots in the May 1 – 2 CSNS World & Ancient Coins Platinum Session and Signature Auction.

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The post Augustus Gold Aureus Featured in Heritage Auction CSNS Sale appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

Photos can be a wonderful aid or an absolute danger. Depending on the type of lighting used by the photographer, a coin’s surface can show every bump and scratch, or it can look like a piece of glass. Some auction firms go to great pains and expense to produce realistic photos. Some don’t (Sayles, 25).

Much of what I have learned about ancient coins over the years has come from books, articles, and conversations with dealers, scholars, and other collectors. But a great deal has come from studying ancient coin auction catalogs. I’ve accumulated hundreds of these catalogs, to the point that shelf space has run out and they are beginning to pile up on the floor.

For beginning collectors, coin auction catalogs–even those written in English and well-illustrated–can be baffling. Let’s consider how to make sense of them.

Here is a detailed description of “the most famous of all Roman coins,” from a recent auction catalog^[1]:

622. The Republicans. Brutus. Late summer – autumn 42 BC. AR denarius (17.5mm, 3.75 g. 12h). Military mint traveling with Brutus and Cassius in western Asia Minor or northern Greece. L. Plaetorius Cestianus, magistrate. Bare head of Brutus, right BRVT above IMP to right, L • PLAET • CEST around to left / Pileus between two daggers pointing downward. EID • MAR below. Crawford 508/3; Campana, Eid Mar,40-1 (O2/R13); Cahn 13a-b; CRI 216; Sydenham 1301; RSC 15; BMCRR East 68-70, Kestner -; RBW-. Toned with hints of iridescence, minor marks and scratches, scrapes on obverse, banker’s mark on reverse. Good VF. Very rare. The most famous of all Roman coins. This coin is not plated in Campana. ($250,000)

From the collection of a Connoisseur Classicist, purchased from Numismatic Ars Classica, early 1990s

Lot Number: 622. The “lot number” identifies the coin in the auction. During the bidding, lots are sold sequentially by lot number.

Issuing Authority: Answers the questions of who issued the coin, where, and when. In this case, “The Republicans” refers to Julius Caesar’s assassins in the Roman civil war of 44- 42 BCE. Lucius Plaetorius Cestianus, otherwise unknown to history, was probably the paymaster in the army of Brutus.

Date: Unlike modern coins, most ancient coins do not carry a date. Thanks to diligent work by generations of numismatic scholars, the dates for most Roman coins are known with considerable precision. For most ancient Greek and other coins, the dates are only approximate estimates.

Metal: The material of a coin is usually given as an abbreviation derived from Latin: “AV” for gold, “EL” for electrum, “AR” for silver, and “AE” for bronze.

Denomination and Dimensions: The coin is a denarius. In parentheses, the diameter is given in millimeters, the weight in grams, and the “die axis” in terms of a clock face. “12h” means that both sides are oriented in the same direction; “6h” means that the reverse is upside-down relative to the obverse.

Obverse Type and Inscription: The obverse or “heads” side design is described. The inscription is transcribed and may be translated. There is a rich vocabulary of technical terms describing features of a portrait; for example, “draped” means the fabric of a garment is visible, “cuirassed” means the figure is wearing body armor, and “laureate” means the figure is crowned with a wreath of laurel leaves.

Reverse Type and Inscription: The design on the reverse or “tails” side is described. The inscription is transcribed and may be translated. The pileus, a felt cap worn by freed slaves, became a symbol of liberation.

References: Listings of the coin type by number in standard reference books. A dash after the author’s name means the coin is missing from that reference. In this case, “Campana” refers to the Italian numismatist Alberto Campana (1947- ), who authored a definitive study of this type.

Grade: Traditional grades for ancient coins are F (Fine), VF (Very Fine), EF or XF (Extremely Fine), and MS (Mint State). Rarely, one might see FDC (Fleur de coin), French for “flower of coinage”, indicating that the coin is absolutely flawless). The 70-point Sheldon Scale, familiar to collectors of American coins, is meaningless for ancient coins. If there is a hole in the coin, the term “pierced” will appear. If the coin has been tooled to improve its appearance, this should be noted. In the 19th century, tooling was quite common, but today it is considered a serious defect by most collectors. The grade may be followed by an indication of rarity.

Estimate: The cataloguer usually provides an estimate of the price, or sometimes a “starting price” or minimum acceptable bid. These days, desirable coins sell for two or three times the estimate – sometimes far more, if several collectors with deep pockets get into a bidding war over a coveted rarity.

Provenance: Ancient coins are like puppies: the better the pedigree, the higher the price. If a coin has been in a famous sale or collection, this will often be called out in the listing. If a specific coin is the example cited in a standard reference book, the phrase “this coin” may appear, and if the specific coin is illustrated in that reference, then you may see the phrase “plate coin”. Such select coins often sell for a premium.

How Ancient Coin Catalogs are Organized

Auction catalogs begin with some pages that set out the rules of the auction. Pay particular attention to the “Buyer’s Fee”, which is a service charge added to the winning bid. This typically ranges from 15 to 25%. There may be some background on the auction house and its personnel, and notes on any particular collections offered for sale. For major European auction houses, this introductory material is often provided in several languages.

The coin listings begin with Greek and related coins, followed by Roman, “Byzantine” and (if present) medieval, Islamic, Asian and modern world coinages.

The arrangement of ancient Greek coins in most auction catalogs is based on a system developed originally by Austrian numismatist Joseph Eckhel^[2] (1737-1798). He based his categories on historic regions of the ancient world, moving from West to East, beginning with the Iberian Peninsula. So the first coins in the catalog are typically Celtic, followed by Italy, Sicily, North Africa, the Greek mainland, the Greek islands, Asia Minor, etc. For example, coins of Athens are listed under “Attica”, and coins of Ephesus are listed under “Ionia”. After the regions, the coins of the later Hellenistic kingdoms (c. 323 – 30 BCE), which sprawled across many regions, are listed.

Roman coins are arranged chronologically, beginning with the Republic, continuing through the so-called “Imperatorial” era of civil wars (c. 82 – 27 BCE), and concluding with the sequence of emperors. Roman provincial coins (sometimes called Greek Imperial) may be in a separate section, or included under the respective emperor listing.

Catalogs of “important”^[3] auctions can become reference works that are highly collectible themselves. For example, the three-volume catalog of the massive Garrett Collection of ancient and foreign coins sold by Johns Hopkins University (1984-85) currently sells for over $100. Two catalogs for the sale of the William Herbert Hunt collection of Byzantine coins (December 5-6, 1990 and June 21, 1991) are highly valued by collectors of this series. Copies currently sell for $45 to $75 and up.

One thing that makes a catalog even more useful to collectors is the list of “Prices Realized”, a few sheets listing the winning bids for each coin or group lot. If there is no price listed for a specific lot, then that lot was probably unsold, or possibly withdrawn before the sale. Prices Realized are sometimes archived on the auction house website and can be downloaded. Older sales, however, can be difficult or impossible to find. Occasionally, you may see prices realized penciled in by a collector beside the listings

How to Obtain Catalogs

Auction houses mail out catalogs well ahead of the sale to regular buyers. These catalogs are costly to print and mail; some are substantial hardcover books with glossy full-color illustrations, so there may be a subscription fee. New buyers can often obtain a catalog by writing or emailing the auction house. At local coin shows, there is often a “freebie” table where collectors can leave unwanted old catalogs for others to take. Many historic catalogs have been digitized and can be downloaded free from sites like the Newman Numismatic Portal maintained by Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri.

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Notes

[1] CNG Triton XXVIII, January 14-15, 2025, Lot 622. Realized $450,000 USD (estimate $250,000).

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Hilarius_Eckhel

[3] “Important” is a term of art in numismatics that means “expensive”.
 

References for How to Read an Ancient Coin Auction Catalog

Numismatic Fine Arts and Bank Leu. The Garrett Collection, Part I. (Beverly Hills, May 16-18, 1984)

–. The Garrett Collection, Part II. (Zurich, October 16-18, 1984)

–. The Garrett Collection, Part III. (Beverly Hills, March 29, 1985)

Sayles, Wayne. Ancient Coin Collecting. Iola, WI (1996)

Sotheby’s. The William Herbert Hunt Collection: Highly Important Byzantine Coins. New York (December 5-6, 1990)

–. The William Herbert Hunt Collection: Important Byzantine Coins. New York (June 21, 1991)

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The post How to Read an Ancient Coin Auction Catalog: Mike Markowitz appeared first on CoinWeek: Rare Coin, Currency, and Bullion News for Collectors.

On March 17, 2025, Künker’s held Auction 419 presenting 638 lots of ancient coins, including numerous Roman aurei. Many of them are of the highest historical importance and wonderful quality, some have spectacular provenances – and this was reflected in the results. The total estimate of two million euros doubled to four million euros (or almost $4.33 million). We present the top five lots of the total auction sale as well as the most expensive coins from the Celtic, Greek, Byzantine, and Crusader categories.

Top Five Results From Künker Auction 419

Roman aurei of excellent quality are a safe bet when it comes to impressive results – especially if they are rare coin types such as this aureus of Caligula, showing his mother Agrippina on the reverse. The coin was sold for 120,000 euros.

Agrippina was one of the most influential women of the early Roman Empire. She was the offspring of the marriage between Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the victor of Actium, and Julia, daughter of the first emperor, Augustus. The husband chosen for her was Germanicus, who was supposed to become Augustus’ successor. They had nine children, including future Emperor Caligula. The latter focused on dynastic connections in his coinage and his mother played a major role in this. We know several coin types with her profile, including this aureus from 37/8. It makes us forget that Agrippina was exiled in 29 AD and starved herself to death on Pandataria in 33 AD.

Actually, aurei of Commodus are not really rare, at least most of them. But aurei showing Commodus as Hercules Romanus are extremely rare in top condition. Künker was able to offer such a rarity in Auction 419; the result was 170,000 euros.

The reason for this is the history of the image, and above all the controversy surrounding it. After all, historians were only too happy to illustrate Commodus’ megalomania by claiming that he showed up dressed as Hercules in the arena at gladiator fights. The point is that historians did so after his damnatio memoriae. They did not want to explain his actions but to make him appear as mad as possible. After all, it was nothing unusual for an ancient ruler to identify with Hercules – even Alexander the Great had done so. It is not surprising, then, that Septimius Severus, having successfully navigated the turmoil following the assassination of Commodus, defended his predecessor’s appearance as Hercules before the Senate when he had Commodus’ damnatio memoriae revoked.

Even more impressive – at a hammer price of 190,000 euros – was the result of an aureus of Postumus, whom many French and Germans claim as “their” emperor – after all, he came from Gaul and established his center of power in Cologne. Coins of Postumus are among the most beautiful pieces we know from the time of the Barracks Emperors, and the example offered by Künker is an outstanding specimen. It features Postumus and Heracles on the obverse, with whom the emperor liked to identify himself. The reverse shows Victoria and Felicitas, representing Postumus’ military successes. More important for the price of this piece, however, was its excellent pedigree. Coins like this were photographed for auction catalogs as early as the 19th century, which is why this one’s ownership can reliably be traced back to 1888.

It is challenging to assemble a complete series of Roman emperors. It is even more difficult if you want this complete series to consist of gold coins of perfect quality. There will always be some gaps that require a lot of time and money to fill. Künker Auction 419 offered the opportunity to fill such a gap with an aureus of Pescennius Niger. No wonder it climbed to 220,000 euros, making it the second most expensive piece in the auction sale.

It is probably the most iconic denarius in Roman history – the portrait denarius of Marcus Iunius Brutus, depicting the liberty cap between two daggers on the reverse. This was reflected in its price as the coin realized 280,000 euros, the highest result of the auction. The denarius is one of the few coins described by ancient historians. However, it only really became known in the humanist world during the war of the Dutch cities against the Spanish Crown. The Dutch used this denarius for their own propaganda. This is how the liberty cap that is prominently featured on this Roman coin found its way into Dutch coinage and, from there, into the coinage of other republics.

280,000 euros for a denarius whose condition is described as Fine to Very Fine! This is probably the best example to demonstrate that numismatics is still about the history and the stories behind the pieces.

Celtic Coins

It would be unfair to compare the results of Celtic coins with those of Roman aurei. The number of collectors interested in Celtic coins is much smaller and they often have a limited budget. However, this should not detract from the fact that some exceptional prices were achieved by Celtic coins in Künker’s auction 419, for example this magnificent tetradrachm of the “horseman type” produced in Pannonia around 150 BC. Its price jumped from 15,000 euros to impressive 24,000 euros.

Greek Coins

Prices for Greek coins have risen too, although not to the same extent as those for Roman aurei. This is an opportunity for any collector attracted by the aesthetics of Greek die-cutting. For example, 48,000 euros for a stater from Caulonia with an excellent provenance is a big sum, but it is only a fraction of what is being paid for a perfect aureus.

Byzantine Coins

Byzantine coins are still considered an insiders’ tip, even though the history of Byzantine emperors is well documented and so eventful that it could overshadow that of Roman emperors. Take Michael II for example, who was born around 770 in Amorion in Phrygia, Asia Minor. He rose to become commander of the imperial palace guard, married the emperor’s daughter, became an eminence gris and, in this capacity, placed Leo V on the throne. The latter wanted to eliminate him and sentenced him to death in 820. But Leo had misjudged the balance of power. Michael’s followers assassinated Emperor Leo, got Michael out of prison and made him ruler. That was no easy job! Michael had to defend himself against Arab expansion – including in Syracuse, where this coin was struck, probably to pay soldiers. He fought off a usurpation attempt under Thomas the Slav, mediated between iconoclasts and iconodules, and kept an increasingly radical clergy in check. Michael died peacefully of kidney failure in 829, and power passed to his son Theophilos without a problem. With this extremely rare solidus, a victorious collector bought a coin representing this much history for just 4,600 euros.

Crusader Coins

Let us round off this review with a spectacular result from the Crusader States. An inconspicuous but extremely rare lead seal rose from an estimate of 400 euros to almost 24 times that amount: 9,500 euros. The seal belonged to a very short-lived Grand Master of the Order of St. John with the beautiful name of Geoffroy the Rat. Of course, he was not so named because of any fault in his character. No, history probably gave him the nickname Mus (Latin for “mouse/rat”) for family reasons. There seems to have been a noble family of the same name in Touraine.

Beyond Künker Auction 419

We hope you enjoyed the wonderful rarities in Künker Auction 419 as much as we did. But do not be misled. Although coins are considered valuable investment objects around the globe, collectors with a limited budget also have the opportunity to discover fascinating fields. Just take a look at Künker’s web shop or at one of the many e-Live and e-Live Premium Auctions. You can find all current offers at www.kuenker.de/en.

You can find all auction results online at www.kuenker.de/en. If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact Künker, Nobbenburger Str. 4a, 49076 Osnabrück; phone: +49 541 / 962020; fax: +49 541 / 9620222; or via e-mail: service@kuenker.de.

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The Collier Collection Auction of Ancient Coins

The American Numismatic Society (ANS) announces that the Collection of James M. Collier will be offered at auction by Nomos AG (Zurich, Switzerland) from April 5-6, 2025. All proceeds from the collection will establish an endowment at the ANS to offer the Collier Prize in Ancient Numismatics in perpetuity. The Collier Prize was established in 2020 with the generous support of ANS Trustee Carole Anne Menzi Collier in honor of her late husband Professor James M. Collier. It is the most substantial financial award supporting scholarship in ancient numismatics. Nomos AG Auction 35 will include many fine examples of ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine coins from the Collier collection.

James Collier initially taught art history before fully dedicating himself to painting, in which he drew inspiration both from the rich tapestry of art history and the world around him. His work is deeply influenced by his understanding of artistic periods–in particular of the Renaissance–yet he remained attuned to the nuances of objects he loved, such as coins and medals, blending the two to create a unique and compelling visual narrative. His coin collection contains many of the great highlights of ancient numismatics, such as an exceptional group of coins of Syracuse, including a stunning decadrachm of Euainetos (Lot 169). In the extensive Roman series, there are many highlights, such as a remarkable specimen of the sesterius of Nero with his lost triumphal arch (Lot 659) and a full set of the Twelve Caesars in silver (Lot 640).

What Is the Collier Prize?

The Collier Prize is awarded biennially to the best single or multi-authored work in the field of ancient numismatics, with the winner(s) receiving $20,000 (to be split equally for a multi-authored work). The prize was first awarded in 2021 to Roman Imperial Coinage (RIC) II.3 (Spink, 2020) by Richard Abdy and Peter Mittag, and most recently to Moneda Ibérica (monedaiberica.org), developed and edited by Manuel Gozalbes Fernández de Palencia, Pere Pau Ripollès Alegre, Alejandro Peña, and Juan Francisco Onielfa, in a ceremony on March 18, 2025, at the ANS in New York City.

The Sydney F. Martin Executive Director, Dr. Ute Wartenberg Kagan, commented on the auction: “We are most grateful for the generous support of our trustee, Carole Anne Menzi Collier, and Nomos AG for hosting this auction. The proceeds will help the ANS continue to enrich the study of ancient numismatics by supporting this prize and honoring significant research publications in the field.”

The auction of the Collier Collection will begin at 14:00 CEST (8:00 AM ET) on April 5. For more information, visit www.nomosag.com/auction. We hope that you will support the ANS by bidding in the auction!

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In the Roman world, Venus was the goddess of love, beauty, and fertility. Venus and her son Cupid are common motifs on Roman coinage. However, she can only be securely identified on Roman republican coinage starting in the later second century BCE. Rather than being a symbol of love or fertility, her significance on republican coinage is usually an expression of a personal relationship between the deity and a specific family, and most of the depictions are closely tied to ideas of victory and triumph.

The earliest depictions of Venus on Roman coins are tied to only two families, the Julii and the Memmii. Both families claimed descent from the Trojans. The Julii, in fact, claimed direct descent from Venus herself through her son Aeneas, whom she rescued from Troy. The Memmii claimed Trojan descent through Mnestheus (Vergil, Aen. 5.117), one of Aeneas’ companions. In 129 BCE, Sextus Julius Caesar minted a denarius which features Venus driving a biga and being crowned from behind by her son Cupid (Fig. 1). The motif recalls triumphal imagery where the triumphator rides in a chariot while being crowned by Victory. Triumphal imagery was adapted to various deities on Roman Republican coinage, such as on RRC 223/1 where the goddess Juno is seen as triumphator crowned by Victory. Venus again appears on a denarius of the Julii in 103 BCE, this time issued by Lucius Julius Caesar (cos. 90). Venus is similarly shown driving a biga but, in a more playful take on the triumphal chariot, it is pulled by flying Cupids rather than horses (Fig. 2). A lyre, placed below the Cupids, represents Apollo, another deity closely tied to the gens Julia.

Venus is most famously utilized by the Julian family under Julius Caesar. In 48 BCE, before his defeat of Pompey at Pharsalus, Caesar vowed a temple to Venus Victrix (“Venus the Victor”) if he should win the battle (notably, Pompey had built his own temple to Venus Victrix a few years earlier). Caesar ended up instead dedicating the temple–which formed part of his new forum–to Venus Genetrix (“Venus the Mother”) as the ancestor of his own family. The divine lineage of the Julian family is particularly highlighted on a denarius of Caesar issued in 47-46 BCE (Fig. 3). The obverse features a head of Venus wearing her typical diadem, while the reverse shows her son Aeneas fleeing Troy carrying his father on his shoulder and the Palladium (the Trojan cult image of Athena) in his right hand. Caesar’s name is featured prominently on the reverse beside his famous ancestors. The issue was produced in the same years that Caesar’s temple to Venus Genetrix (dedicated 46 BCE) was being completed.

The Memmius family, though ultimately less prominent than the Julii, used similar images of Venus in triumph on their own coins. In 106 BCE, Lucius Memmius issued a denarius serratus that featured a similar reverse to Sextus Julius’ denarius (Fig. 4). Venus appears driving a biga, while Cupid again replaces Victory but this time flying above (for Victory in a similar position cf. RRC 270/1). On his bronze issues, L. Memmius adapted the traditional prow reverse to feature Venus’ head on the prow stem, while Cupid, balancing on the rostrum, reaches up to crown the image of his mother (Fig. 5). In 87 BCE, Lucius and Caius Memmius–presumably the sons of the aforementioned Lucius–adopted the same denarius types as their father (Fig. 6).

Beginning in the 80s BCE, Venus became a more prominent figure on Roman Republican coins, though still usually with connotations of victory and triumph. She also remained a figure closely tied to certain families. Lucius Cornelius Sulla displayed Venus prominently in his coinage as his patron deity. Sulla even styled himself ‘Epaphroditus’ in Greek, meaning ‘favored by Aphrodite,’ Venus’ Greek equivalent. Around 84-83 BCE, Sulla minted an aureus and denarius that show a head of Venus on the obverse, with Cupid standing beside her holding a palm branch – a typical symbol of victory (Fig. 7). The reverse shows a jug and lituus (symbols of the augur), flanked by two trophies, probably representing Sulla’s two trophies at Chaironeia, or his victories at Chaironeia and Orchomenos. Plutarch reports that Sulla even dedicated his trophies at Chaironeia to Venus, along with Mars and Victory (Plut. Sull. 19.5).

In fact, like the Julii and Memmii, Sulla’s relationship with Venus seems to be one that was passed through his family. In what may be the earliest representation of Venus on Roman coinage, Publius Cornelius Sulla, L. Sulla’s grandfather or perhaps great uncle, issued bronzes in 151 BCE with a woman’s head on the prow stem (Fig. 8). Based on the parallel with L. Memmius’ later bronzes, where the woman’s identity is made clear by the presence of Cupid (Fig. 5), as well as L. Sulla’s relationship with the deity, it makes sense to interpret the figurehead as Venus.

Although Venus appears more frequently in coinage following Sulla, there is only one issue before 82 BCE that is not issued by a member of the gens Julia, Memmia, or Cornelia, namely a denarius of Caius Norbanus from 83 BCE (Fig. 9). It shows a diademed head of Venus on the obverse of the coin and an ear of grain, fasces, and caduceus on the reverse. The exact identity of C. Norbanus is not known, and there is no particular evidence of a special familial relationship with Venus. Michael Crawford identified him as the son of the consul of 83 BCE of the same name, and himself as praetor in 43 and consul in 38 BCE. This is possible, though it would mean a rather long gap in his career, which Crawford attributes to the proscription of his father by Sulla.

Alternatively, the moneyer and the consul of 83 may be one and the same. Although he does not explicitly identify himself as consul on the coinage, the fasces–signs of imperium granted only to specific offices–may be intended to serve as a symbol of his consulship. If correct, this would mean that the moneyer was a supporter of Sulla’s rival Marius; Norbanus fought against Sulla in 83, and was later proscribed. Norbanus’ denarius would have been issued shortly after Sulla’s IMPER ITERVM issue (Fig. 6), and just as Sulla was returning to Italy. Given that Sulla attributed his victories in the east in part to his favor by Venus, the use of Venus on the coins of his rival faction appears to be in direct response to Sulla. By combining Venus with traditional symbols of Rome’s abundance (grain), imperium (fasces), and felicitas (caduceus), Norbanus’ coinage emphasizes Venus’ identity as a civic deity of Rome. While Sulla’s coins express military victory and personal divine favor, Norbanus’ instead convey the power of the state through symbols of imperium and prosperity.

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